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THE END OF CERTAINTY

2024-11-29T10:16:48.31-05:00

Analytical Mathematical proof of Newton's second law

2019-04-11T15:01:38.577-04:00

A Study of Network Based Simulators

2018-06-25T05:21:06.75-04:00

A Study of Network Based Simulators Asim Qayyum BL735753 Department of Computer Science Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad Abstract—Simulation procedures became fashionable among computers and telecommunications network researchers and developers round the world. This quality is owing to the provision of assorted innovative and powerful simulation packages, and owing to the pliability within the construction and validation of models bestowed by imagination For selecting AN acceptable network machine for a simulation task, it's vital to own smart information of the simulation tools accessible, in conjunction with their strengths and weaknesses. It’s conjointly vital to confirm that the results generated by the simulators are valid and credible. The purpose of this paper is to survey and compare network simulators so that researchers can help select the most importantly acceptable simulation tool. We compare the support type of network simulators, preparation mode, network troubleshooting and protocols. We tend to discuss machine analysis methodologies and techniques, and supply tips for best follow in network simulation. Key Words: Network simulator, simulation methodology, parallel simulation. I. INTRODUCTION Network simulation methodology is usually wont to verify analytical models, generalize the ministration results, value the performance of latest protocols that are being developed, in addition on compare the prevailing protocols. However, there is also a possible drawback once mistreatment simulation in testing protocols as a result of the results generated by a machine might not be essentially correct or representative. To beat this drawback, it's vital for network researchers and developers to use a reputable simulation tool that is simple to use; additional versatile in model development, modification and validation; and incorporates acceptable analysis of simulation output information, pseudo-random range generators, and applied mathematics accuracy of the simulation results. To pick out a reputable machine for a simulation task, it's additionally vital to possess sensible information of the on the market simulation tools, at the side of their relative strengths and weaknesses. These aspects of credible simulation studies are counseled by leading simulation researchers. II. A SURVEY OF EXISTING NETWORK SIMULATORS While numerous simulators exist for building a spread of network models, we tend to compare ten fashionable network simulators lightness their strengths and weaknesses. These simulators were selected supported their quality, revealed results, and attention-grabbing characteristics and options. i.OPNET Optimized Network Engineering Tool (OPNET) is a discrete event, object-oriented, general purpose network simulator. It provides a comprehensive development environment for the specification, simulation and performance analysis of computer and data communication networks. OPNET is a commercial network simulation package

Review on the Major Challenges and Difficulties of Farm Animal Cloning

2018-06-14T02:24:07.123-04:00

An Introduction to Robotic Stylistics: A Future Trend

2018-04-07T19:16:11.34-04:00

metacognitive writing questionniare

2018-03-20T03:42:43.31-04:00

The equations about fluids without solutions for manny years.

2018-03-16T16:07:22.343-04:00

waste heat recovery from solar water heater

2018-01-24T02:29:20.967-05:00

METHANE GAS EMISSIONS: METHODS OF IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY OF THE BIGGEST LANDFILL GAS WASTE TO ENERGY PROJECT IN THE MIDDLE EAST INSTALLED IN AMMAN, JORDAN

2018-01-22T17:02:24.95-05:00

Maternal Exercise during Pregnancy Increases BDNF Levels and Cell Numbers in the Hippocampal Formation but Not in the Cerebral Cortex of Adult Rat Offspring

2017-12-22T02:02:08.717-05:00

HEURÍSTICA PARA LA SIMULACIÓN DE PROCESOS ESTOCÁSTICOS

2017-11-30T20:40:50.297-05:00

OCEAN ENERGY! A COMPREHENSIVE SOLUTION TO ENERGY CRISIS

2017-11-18T11:04:24.013-05:00

BLUE ENERGY! A COMPREHENSIVE SOLUTION TO ENERGY CRISIS Abstract- The possibility of osmotic energy for energy crisis as a solution lies within the technology that needs to be developed further. Osmosis & RED have been discussed for power generation by mixing of fresh & saline ocean water. Efforts have been made to bring blue energy as renewable energy source even if it is only a partial solution to energy & environmental problems. Keywords:-Osmosis, RED (Reverse Electro Dialysis), Hypolimnion 1. INTRODUCTION TO BLUE ENERGY The need of new energy sources leads to energy created by transportation of solutions, osmotic energy & salient gradient energy. Salination would be a perfect technique for places where fresh & ocean water mixes naturally.[1]Idea of producing blue energy was explored during energy crisis of 1970’s.Energy released by world’s fresh water rivers flowing into salty oceans is compared to each river ending at its mouth in a waterfall of 739 feet high. With development of membrane technology & electrical modifications of plastics, semi-permeable membranes have been developed to use osmotic effect & RED along with its conversion to mechanical energy. 2. ELECTROLYSIS CONCEPTS I. OSMOSIS Osmotic energy is the transportation of pure water & salt water separated by a semi-permeable membrane which is an organic filter with extremely small holes for passage of water molecules. Water aspires to decrease the salt concentration on the side of membrane having most of salt. Water streams through the membrane & creates pressure on other side which is used to gain blue energy by using a turbine & generator.[2] Fig1 shows a test rigg for osmosis process where semi-permeable membrane separates pure water & a solvent with water & salt (NaCl). Fig. 1: Test rigg for osmosis process The amount of fresh water passing through membrane depends on salt concentration in salt water. For concentration of 3.5%, osmotic pressure is approx. 26 bars.[3]. Demerit is that with reduced salt concentration in salt water, process slows down. To fix it, both sides must be empty & refill very quickly to avoid run-interference. Membrane wears out because of silt & contaminations getting stuck. Life of membrane gets reduced to approximately 5 months. II.REVERSE ELECRO DIALYSIS (RED) Concentrated salt solution & fresh water phase are brought into contact through alternating series of anion & cation exchange membranes. Anions migrate through anion exchange membrane towards anode & cations move through cation exchange membrane towards cathode thereby creating a potential difference. Pressure larger than osmotic head

BLUE ENERGY! A COMPREHENSIVE SOLUTION TO ENERGY CRISIS

2017-11-18T10:56:09.84-05:00

Analysis of Cola Lab

2017-10-31T08:55:01.937-04:00

Agricultural Residues (Wastes) for Manufacture of Paper, Board, and Miscellaneous Products: Background Overview and Future Prospects

2017-08-17T13:24:52.653-04:00

Auxiliary Safety Systems for Two Wheelers

2017-08-01T03:13:05.7-04:00

Real World Applications Pertaining the Analysis of Fiber Optic Sensors and Biosensors

2017-03-28T22:08:02.047-04:00

Cosmology

2017-03-22T06:52:59.607-04:00

Creativity and Design

2017-03-11T14:16:29.013-05:00

Fabrication and characterization of edible jelly formulation of Stevioside: A nutraceutical or OTC aid for the diabetic patients

2017-03-01T12:22:43.403-05:00

Change Position of Taskbar in Windows

2017-02-27T11:11:11.593-05:00

Fabrication and Characterization of Edible Jelly Formulation of Stevioside: A Nutraceutical or OTC Aid for the Diabetic Patients

2017-02-07T06:21:46.857-05:00

LPG Automation Device

2017-01-26T13:57:49.357-05:00

The prime cause prevention and treatment of cancer

2017-01-19T16:06:09.89-05:00

Maintenance Planing in BME

2016-12-16T08:35:41.2-05:00

Design of octagon shape microstrip patch antenna for multiband application

2016-08-21T02:51:15.1-04:00

ZnO Nanoparticles: Growth, Properties, and Applications

2016-06-23T06:38:29.943-04:00

Stereo vision aided inertial navigation with inverse depth parameterized mapping and 1-Point RANSAC for EKF filtering

2016-06-15T16:33:42.373-04:00

Stereo vision aided inertial navigation with inverse depth parameterized mapping and 1 point RANSAC for EKF filtering

2016-06-15T16:21:09.7-04:00

Cognitive Effects of Chocolate Ingestion-PSY325-Ashford University

2016-05-13T20:32:59.683-04:00

Personality

2016-04-25T19:55:35.143-04:00

Personality of Anson Anson Wong Ho 7 that can be postponed, is a satisfaction of higher needs leads to improved health and longevity; thus, Maslowcalled higher needs growth or being, needs. In what satisfaction of higher needs is beneficial psychologicallyand leads to contentment and happiness given by good external circumstances in a sequence of before next need becomes important, needs do not need to be fully satisfied. There are totally five needs including physiologicalneeds, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization need in the sequence of the basic needs to higher needs respectively. In details, physiological needs not only basic survival needs butalso have a greater personal impact as motivating forces in cultures where basic survival remains an everydayconcern. Safety needs are important drives for infants and neurotic adults’ e.g. youngsters react visibly andimmediately to any threat to their security and adults have learned ways to inhibit their reactions to dangeroussituations; moreover; visible indication of children’s safety needs is their preference for structure or routine, for an orderly and predictable world. Relevantly, avoidance to new experiences and preference for order over chaosare related. The meaning of belongingness and love needs is the expression through lover or mate and socialrelationship formed within a group, and this needs satisfied by association with and acceptance of others. Interms of failure to meet this need, fundamental cause of emotion maladjustment will be occurred. The sourcesof esteem can be classified into two- ourselves and others respectively. Self-worth and recognized status aresources for building self-esteem regarding to ourselves and others respectively. Satisfaction is based on severalneeds those are feeling confident of our strength, worth, and adequacy. In contrast, failure occurs due todissatisfy then leads to inferiority feelings and feelings of helplessness. Beyond the Hierarchy of Needs,cognitive needs are the second set of innate needs in order to know and to understand. Historical evidence Personality of Anson Anson Wong Ho 8 places cognitive needs above safety needs. Cognitive needs appear in late infancy and early childhood. In order to process self-actualization, cognitive needs are necessary since self-actualization is an abstract term; thus,cognitive development and its needs must be satisfy and mature. Self-actualization need is what Maslow calledhighest need, meaning fullest development of the self which depends on the maximum realization, andfulfillment of our potentials, talents and abilities. The foundations of forms are capability of maximizing personal abilities

THE EXAMINATION ABOUT E-GOVERNMENT SERVICES ON THE PEOPLE OF BANGLADESH

2016-03-28T15:27:09.153-04:00

Rene Descartes

2016-02-06T11:18:30.17-05:00

Surprise Ending: Discourse on the Method Lorenzo Maurice Davis Strayer University Anthony McCormack Humanities 112 February 1st, 2016 Perhaps there are no other philosophers and mathematicians that contributed to the development of the scientific method than that of Rene Descartes (1637). Indeed, it is generally accepted within the scientific community that “Descartes is the forerunner of deductive reasoning. Deductive logic can be defined as a process in which on test general propositions to arrive at specific results. The deductive tradition is often associated with the positivist or post positivist school of thought, which focuses on universal truths using a quantitative research approach. This paper attempts to analyze the reliability and validity of Rene Descartes surprise ending or conclusion about the nature of existence and of God. In his Discourse on Methods, Descartes (2007) begins with the basic presumption of doubt amongst all phenomena that can be directly observed through the senses. Employing a rather metaphysical argument, Descartes reach a point of realization when he accepted his own thinking as proof of his existence. The philosopher constructed two fundamental principles: “I think, therefore I am.” These two principles inevitably came as a surprise in that while on the surface Descartes methods appear to be based entirely on a subjective experience, I can acknowledge that to some degree his propositions have universal application. The connection between thinking and existence is of such critical importance and relevance to Descartes proof of much grander phenomena: the ontology of God. Descartes essentially uses the analogy of geometry as his proof for the existence of God; thus, just like a geometrical triangle has three parts to complete its whole; man is alive because God created him to be. Believing in the idea of an imperfect, infinite being is the grandeur proof regarding the ontology of God. Descartes process of thought serves as a basis for universal and quantifiable arguments, and I find his propositions highly convincing. The surprise ending of Descartes discourse on methods inevitably leaves no doubt in my mind regarding the existence of God: after all, this notable philosopher incorporated the mathematical language of science to prove the nature of existence upon which some skeptics would still contend that Descartes arguments were situated upon relativistic grounds. Nevertheless, we cannot forget the anecdotal experiences and reports from individuals who were fortunate enough to receive direct revelation from the gods that they profess to worship; such personal accounts can spark a revolutionary

Intelligent Traffic Control System

2016-01-17T12:32:30.48-05:00

Pumpkin Purifier: Removal and Extraction of Metals from River Using PUMPKIN.

2015-11-03T07:02:38.993-05:00

THERMO MECHANICAL PROCESSING

2015-11-03T02:42:40.57-05:00

Addictive Facebook Use among University Students

2015-08-24T07:02:58.433-04:00

Natural Resources- its Depletion and Protection

2015-07-08T10:28:31.97-04:00

Mirror Nuerons

2014-10-31T02:44:45.633-04:00

I found the

Face-to-face communication can never be replaced

2014-09-16T01:57:51.52-04:00

GENDER INFLUENCE ON STUDENTS ENROLLMENT IN PHYSICS IN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS IN IMO STATE, NIGERIA.

2014-09-10T19:30:42.463-04:00

sound and its characters

2014-07-02T11:25:41.14-04:00

SOUND AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS We are well aware of the property of sound in our routine life, train reaching the platform, ringing bell, blowing whistle etc. are the best examples for sound. Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrating bodies and travels in the form of wave ,while travelling it moves from place to other place by transporting the energy and this makes sensation of hearing to our ears, since the vibrations move from one place to another the particles of the medium move closer to each other and produce compression and at the same time when they move away from each other they produce rarefaction. Therefore compressions are points of high pressure and rarefactions are the points of low pressure. Sound requires a material medium to travel, for example vibrations in the tuning fork can be produced only when external force is applied manually with hand, string in the sonometer will produce vibrations after applying external force. Sound can travel in solids, liquids and gases but it cannot travel in vacuum. We can easily know the motion of sound in solids, for example putting our ears on the rail we can easily observe the sound produced from the coming train, in a similar way sound will be produced in the river water as well as sea water which is a liquid.When we make comparision between light and sound where both are form of waves, light do not require any material medium to travel because energy in the light can move from one place to other by means of oscillating electric and magnetic fields present in them, light can travel anywhere even in space. Sound waves are mechanical waves, we can classify mechanical waves into two types 1. Transverse waves 2. Longitudinal waves Transverse waves:- If the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propogation of waves, such type of waves are called transverse waves. Light is form of transverse electromagnetic waves which contain electric and magnetic fields which are perpendicular to each other. Longtiudinal waves:- If theparticles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of propogration of waves we can call them as longitudinal waves. Sound waves are longitudinal waves. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND:- 1. Wave length:- The distance between the crest and trough is a wavelength. Crest is

crystal-its properties

2014-07-01T14:32:26.123-04:00

CRYSTAL – ITS PROPERTIES Matter exists in three forms solid , liquids, gases and finally plasma state. In the case of solids atoms or molecules will be in a fixed position i.e they do not move from one place to other because they are firmly fixed by the nuclear forces of attraction. In the case of liquids and gases atoms or molecules move from one place to other in random motion because they are weakly bounded by the forces of attraction. That is the reason why liquids and do not have definite shape, but solids have definite shape and volume, hence they are rigid in shape and structure. Since crystal belongs to the class of solids where atoms or molecules are arranged in regular, repeated and periodic fashion. They are arranged in regular fashion due to the presence of vectors called crystal translation vectors along x, y, z axes respectively. Crystal being made of transparent material glass it shows optical properties like reflection and refraction and mechanical properties like stress and strain, youngs modulus, bulk modulus, compressability and also used in the detection of methods of ultrasonics like piezoelectricity, magnetostriction method. Depending on whether atoms or molecules are arranged regularly or irregularly crystalline solids can be picturised into two types. 1. Single crystalline solids:- If the periodical arrangement of atoms is extended through a larger distance without any breakage in its structure such type are classified as single crystalline solids (or) if the regular arrangement of atoms or molecules is extended throughout the crystal without any breakage it can be termed as single crystalline solid. 2. Polycrystalline solids:- If the periodical arrangement of atoms is limited through a small regions called crystallites , i.e small pieces of crystal is called as crystallites. These crystallites are in different shape and size, separated by crystallite wall. Even though they are of different symmetries and shapes when considering the entering volume of the crystal the arrangement of atoms will be regular in fashion. Glass and plastic are best examples for polycrystalline solids. Amorphous solids :- The behaviour and arrangement of atoms in

superconducting materials

2014-07-01T12:09:16.077-04:00

SUPERCONDUCIVITY- DISAPPERANCE OF RESISTIVITY In the case of conductors resistance arises due to the thermal vibrations present in the material, these vibrations increases with the increase of temperature.as the temperature of the material decreases resistance also decreases linearly. But there are certain strange materials where the resistance of material abruptly goes down to zero as the temperature is decremented. Because as the temperature decreases thermal vibrations starts to decease and thereby resistance of a material drops down to null value. The temperature at which the resistance drops suddenly to zero is termed as critical temperature and material is said to exist in a state called superconducting state and the phenomenon is called superconductivity. This concept was put forward by a scientist kamerlingh ones while doing experiment on mercury, he could observe the drastic change of resistance at 4.2 K proving the phenomena of superconductivity. The pheonomenon of superconductivity is observed only at low temperature, hence it is also known as low temperature physics. The property of superconductor can be best understood as follows. Consider a core of positive ions present inside a material, let us assume an electron having larger energy is approaching towards the +ve ion core of the material, as it is in the vicinity of +ve ion they undergo distortion with the thermal vibrations present in them due to which the energy of the electron will decrease. Consider another electron having higher energy from the other end is interacting with positive ion core, after sometime the energy of the second electron will try to decrease, thereby the thermal vibrations present in this ion core alone will be acting as a mediator to bound thes two electrons in pair, because a certain repulsive force will exist always between two electrons if there is no mediator between them, hence this interaction is called as electron-lattice-electron interaction. The bound energy of this electrons is very low of the order of 0.024 ev, on application of thermal energy we can easily break this pair of electrons and transform the material to conducting phase. These pair of electrons are called as cooper

electrical properties of semiconductors

2014-07-01T09:55:50.797-04:00

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS It is a known fact that electrons revolve round the nucleus in definite circular orbits under the influence of short range attractive forces called nuclear forces. If the potentiality of electron is strong enough to overcome this force of attraction we can designate them as conductors, on the other hand if the energy of electron is least to overcome the nuclear short range forces such materials are called as insulators or in simple words we can say that materials which reveal intermediate behaviour in between conductors and insulators are termed as semiconductors. At Ok semiconductors behave themselves as insulators, because it is general pedagogy that all electrons at Ok will be localised in the valence band. As a result of this electrons cannot jump from valence band to conduction band because they are tightly bounded themselves, even after the application of higher temperatures only few electrons will try to jump to conduction band. So on the whole some of the insulators at OK will behave as a conductor at room temperature. l The band formed by valence electrons is valence band it is always fulfilled but can never be empty, on the other hand band formed by conduction electrons will serve as conduction band. For an electron to behave as an conductor there should be an unfilled electron in its configuration, the conduction band may be partially filled or empty. Since energy band is nothing but the packet of energy levels, they may be degenerative or non degenerative energy levels depending on the nature of atom. If the atom is in isolated form the energy levels are non degenerative and degenerative in the sense if it is unisolated form. The gap between conduction band and valence band is called forbidden band where the electron cannot stay less than a nanosecond of time. The phenomenon of semiconductors can be best understood with the help of quantam mechanics which specifies the motion of microscopic particles electrons by assuming that the electron has got particle nature and wave nature as proposed by debroglie. Semiconductor is nothing but a crystal where constituent particles like atoms or molecules are arrayed in

Magnetic materials-dipole moment

2014-07-01T09:40:39.013-04:00

MAGNETIC MATERIALS – DIPOLE MOMENT Materials which has got the ultimate capacity of attracting pieces of Iron, nickel, cobalt , dyasporium when they are subjected to external field can be noticed as an important property of magnetic materials. Magnetic materials will not exist as a monopole they always exist as a dipole, because even if we break the magnetic material into pieces the tiny pieces of magnet will also behave as a dipole. Actually the dipole in a magnet is formed due to two reasons 1.Orbital Motion 2.Spin motion of electron We know that electron revolves round the nucleus in definite circular orbits and with consistent energy levels. If the path of this electrons is treated as circular current loop it produces some electric force, due to the generation of this electrical force the size of the nucleus in the material gets distorted, as a result of this the shifting of +ve and –ve charges will take place resulting in the formation of dipole. The moment of such dipole is known as orbital magnetic dipole moment. Generally dipole moment can be defined as the product of pole strength and geometrical length of the bar magnet . The unit of pole strength is Ampere-metre. In addition to the electron revolving round the nucleus in definite circular orbits it spins on its own axis, as a result of which the displacement of positive and negative charges takes place, the moment of such dipoles is known as the spin magnetic dipole moment . There is another type of magnetic moment called Nuclear magnetic moment where the absolute moment of nucles and electrons will take place. Depending on the alignment of atoms and their response to the external magnetic field at a given point of time magnetic materials can be broadly classified

correlation veruse causation

2014-03-14T19:14:14.763-04:00

Lorenzo Davis The great risk of drawing causal conclusions from correlational data is that it stifles psychological research and growth within the general scientific community. In the article, Why our Brains Do Not Intuitively Grasp Probabilities, Michael Shemar makes the argument that most people view probabilities as ultimate fact, and ignore small percentages as having little or no meaning. This information has practical applications for the examples in that just because there is a high probability that something is true, even if we intuitively believe that it is, does not prove that it is true. When researchers attempt to infer causation from correlational variables, they neglect to identify a real understanding of human dilemmas and societal problems. The correlational data that appears to support the idea that married couples below the federal poverty level have a higher rate of separation and divorce compared to their counterparts provides a rather overly simplistic explanation and overlooks other potential variables. Socioeconomic status may play a role in divorce and separation rates, but it is not the only role. Other contributing factors could cause married couples to divorce such as personality traits, lack of effective communication, mindfulness, infidelity, and coping strategies. Correlational data only demonstrates a relationship between two or more measurable variables, but attempting to draw conclusions from them only confirms one’s own biases and pre-conceived notions. The example of African Americans having low socioeconomic status and stress, which contributes to separation and divorce, does not consider other possible variables. Socioeconomic status among African Americans and other minorities may have a correlation between high separations, but it is inaccurate to assume causation. The third variable problem could potentially have other variables such as discrimination and racism, which contributes to poverty, and ultimately split ups between couples. The Census Bureau study also found that married couples who got a divorce often fall below the poverty line. This evidence is convincing and understandable because married couples are no longer bringing in two sources of income, but other environmental factors such as the current status of the economy could contribute to a decrease in income. Again, the environmental context of divorce children does not necessarily mean that a child will divorce his or her partner when he or she gets older. Other factors such as infidelity, violence, drugs, lack of communication, mindfulness, and coping strategies could contribute to whether a divorce child is likely to divorce his or her spouse.

cross-cultural study of violence

2014-03-14T19:01:11.077-04:00

Lorenzo Davis Descriptive: a. Thai adolescents and Social Responsibility: Overcoming Violence in Schools and Creating Peace. b. Vineekararn Kongsuwan, Wandee Suttharungsee, Marguerite J. Purnell, & Christine E. Lynn. c. 2012 d. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences e. Vol 2, No. 11 178-187 Summary: This article is about understanding the cause of adolescent violent behavior within the culture of Southern Thailand schools and to learn more about the perceptions and attitudes that students, teachers, and parents have toward violence. Ultimately, the objective of this article not only focuses on adolescent’s social responsibility towards violence, but it also seeks to engage parents, students, teachers, and healthcare providers in a collaborative effort to reduce the abnormal culture of violence in Southern Thailand schools. The objectives were met by qualitative research designs such as focus groups and in-depth interviews with the teachers, parents, and students. Some of the designs focus on parent’s responsibility toward their children’s violent behavior; others focus on peer pressure, trust factors, student non-violent methods, and the normative subculture of violence. The methods were designed to identify the perceptions of violence within Thailand Schools. The authors found that peer influences, lack of personal responsibility, lack of trust, and feelings of frustration for promoting non-violence correlates to the onset of violent behavior. They concluded that social responsibility towards violence requires community involvement whereby teachers, students, parents, and healthcare providers take an active role in reducing violence in Southern Thailand schools. The study influence the development of a curriculum that focuses on self-management strategies and prevention methods to create a safer, responsible, and academic learning environment. Critique: While I do believe that the researchers demonstrated a sufficient knowledge of the culture under study, I also believe that they did not expound upon the sub-cultural values inherent within southern Thailand, which gives rise to the perpetuation of violence. The researchers primarily focus on those who believed that violence is an abnormal behavior, rather than interviewing those who engage in violent acts. Their information came from those who only have an opinion about why violence occurs so rapidly within Southern Thailand schools. For these reasons, there is definitely a confirmation bias in this study design. Moreover, the researchers did not include parents in the focus groups, which defeat the purpose of integration and collective engagement. It also undermines the credibility of the researchers. Correlational research designs were used and qualitative individual interviews were implemented. The sample was obtained from a large Southern Thailand high school and the students’ parents. The

free apps for android

2014-02-15T08:23:34.41-05:00

free android apps

2014-02-15T08:03:32.877-05:00

Drupan

2013-06-24T03:56:06.83-04:00

Homework Solution to Managerial Accounting

2013-06-12T02:11:46.287-04:00

We are the global organization dealing in offering assistance with content development to several students. We have a deep experience with the accounting content development. We provide assistance to students and budding accountants, in order to solve their queries related to accounting. Accounting, as a subject needs practice and our writers have a great experience in developing content related to accounting. We provide quality accounting content development, so that each client remains satisfied with it. Accounting can be defined as systematic process of recording, reporting, and analysis of financial statements and business transactions. Accounting can also be defined as the process, which includes the recording, summarizing and analysis of the financial transactions related to the business operations, which are in monetary terms. Accounting is the term, which can be described as the record and summary of financial and business information. Accounting is like the life blood of any business. It records all the transactions related to business, which are in monetary terms. It helps in recording all the business activities in a systematic manner and provides historical business transactions, which help to calculate all the profits and business related expenses. Accounting is the process, which includes the identification of the economic activities, and the measurement of the monetary transactions related to business. It is also a communication process of the activities relating business to outsiders. Using the financial information, the investors and the external public analyze the growth and progress of business activities. The services, which we provide related to accounting, include the solutions to many accounting related numerical problems, company analysis, evaluation of several accounting terms and problems. Accounting is the most basic framework of business. An accounting education is important because it can be applied in all job specialties. In the business world, accounting is one discipline of study that all people, regardless of job position, should have some knowledge of. Its concepts can be applied to all job specialties, its importance have been promoted in recent years, and it is useful in people’s everyday lives. Secretaries must use accounting skills to manage the company check book and orders, auditors have to study financial statements to evaluate the accuracy and integrity of the business, and executives need to judge the success of their business using accounting statements from the past and present. These are just a few of the many possible positions where an understanding

Homework Help

2013-06-04T01:11:08.393-04:00

The term research is used for the purpose of searching some important information in order to solve any complex problem. Research is a comprehensive term, which includes a number of different overlapped activities that are quite useful for the purpose of revealing hidden truth behind a fact or situations. The term paper is an academic paper, which contains different aspects of research carried out by the student on a specific topic. The primary aim of the term paper is to elaborate different activities related to the research work, so that overall understanding of student regarding specific topic can be enhanced. The term paper writing enables to open student’s different aspects of research like data collection, data analysis, discussion on the findings of different data collection methods, making recommendations to overcome the problems and coming up with the most viable solution to the research problem. The term paper writing conceives a wide scope. The research can be carried out on different subjects like Science, Arts, History, management, marketing, finance and so on. For the purpose of conducting a successful research, there is a need to have some specialized skills from the side of a researcher. There are a number of complexities associated with the research work, which make it quite difficult for students to write a successful term paper. A well-written and original term paper is much more than just an accumulation of facts printed on paper, and our writers understand this. It will be written with a clear purpose in mind, with both coherence and unity among the presented ideas. Many students, even some that have been successful during their scholastic careers, misunderstand the true purpose of writing a custom term paper. Term papers are not assigned for a student to demonstrate his/her talent in collecting facts and quotations that others have already presented as their own. Rather, the purpose of writing a good term paper is to prove one's ability to come up with his/ her conclusions after analyzing and evaluating information. Professors are looking for fresh, original thought from their students - and that is exactly what we provide. Our research writing team is comprised of several degreed writers from a variety of backgrounds. As such, our writers have lengthy experience in compiling and processing large amounts of information. Whatever your research needs, we will be able to match you with a writer who is qualified to put

Homework Helps For College Accounting

2013-05-25T05:19:20.91-04:00

Social studies vary between the countries and human society that is not a synonymous of social science and sociology.Social studies

Custom Research Paper Writing

2013-04-16T06:35:45.873-04:00

A Research paper also known as academic journal is a peer-reviewed periodical by which a student is assessed by an academician. Academic journals act as forums for the introduction and display for investigation of new research and the criticism of existing research. Research paper can typically take form of articles such as research work, review articles and book reviews. A research paper or academic journal implies all scholarly publications in various fields. Scientific journals or journals of the quantitative social sciences differ in form and structure from journals of the humanities and qualitative social sciences. Professional scholars in the field of academics usually make unasked submissions of their academic work to academic journals. After receiving an article manuscript, journal editor assesses the work and decides whether to reject the research study of the researcher or begin with the process of review. If it is the case of peer review by outside academicians, the submission is subject to the editor's evaluation. The number of peer reviewers depends on each journal's editorial practice; usually not less than two and at least three outside peers give the report that describes the editor's decision. Our organization comprises of a hundred men team dedicated to provide relevant knowledge on writing research papers on subjects as varied as science, mathematics, arts and philosophy. Our support staff is available round the clock for any assistance regarding the research paper tasks of clients. Our organization is determined to raise the standards of the weak students and bring them to satisfactory levels. A Research Paper is a form of an essay, which is used in academic writing. In this, the writer interprets, evaluates and includes the arguments on an issue. A survey is conducted in the field of knowledge, so that information is collected for deriving the results. There is a structure, which is recommended for writing the research paper. It includes title page, contents page, Abstract, Introduction, literature review, Discussion (in can includes sub-headings), conclusion, and reference List. Introduction section is self explanatory. It includes the thesis or hypothetical statement. It also includes research question and the importance of the topic. Literature review summarizes the research analysis and reviews the literature. Methodology gives information about the data, sources of information, limitations of the data, etc. In the analysis and findings, detailed analysis is discussed about the data collected from various primary and secondary sources. Finally,

Dissertation Assistance by Experts

2013-03-12T02:29:20.643-04:00

We provide content development services for development of academic essays. Our expert team of professionals put their hard core effort in developing a good content development essay. Framing a good academic essay requires services of an expertise and we provide excellent solutions for completing the assignment related to academic essays. An academic essay is defined as a piece of writing, which is written generally from a writer’s point of view. Various elements have been included in the essay, which include the learning arguments, political manifestos, reflections, recollections and authors thinking about the topic. Using all this information, the writer can write a good quality essay. Academic essays can also be defined as a short literary composition on a particular topic or any subject under study, which is generally and usually analytical, informative, interpretative and speculative. An academic essay is something, which describes a topic in depth, providing the reader with the deep knowledge of the paper under discussion. There are several points that are needed to be kept in mind, while writing an academic essay. The main point that needs to be taken care of is to do an extensive research about the research topic and collect data and information related to the topic. The essay must also be framed in an outlined manner, so that the essay can be prepared in an appropriate manner. Academic essay is written in response to a question asked. In the academic essay, it is expected to present a point of view, which is present in a thesis statement and is informed by research. The aim of the academic essay is development of a support argument for the thesis, which is proposed. An academic essay must have a purpose or motive. Just the existence of the assignment or the deadline is not sufficient. There are few steps in preparation of an academic essay. First is choosing the topic. Second step is analysis of the question. Third step is construction of an initial outline plan. Fourth step is location and evaluation of resources. Fifth step is researching and organization of notes, construction of a final essay plan. Last and final steps are preparation of rough draft and final draft. Most of the academic essays require presenting an argument with the help of reasoning and the use of evidence. The typical structure of an academic essay is introduction, body and conclusion. The introduction includes background of topic and

PhD Thesis Proposal writing service

2013-02-08T06:42:10.387-05:00

Darkfall On the internet Guide

2013-01-05T21:36:44.217-05:00

Overcome through the countless abilities as well as spells obtainable? Uncertain regarding ability rot, creating abilities as well as armour kinds? Unsure where you can visit following within the substantial globe associated with Agon? Fed up with dropping products you cannot pay for to get rid of? The actual Darkfall On the internet manual may be the means to fix all of your problems. Through the standard particulars to obtain a person began along with racial choice, GUI set up, position and also the fight program towards the heightened ability administration methods as well as installing the very best counter-top episodes, positively get rid of questions and also have your own opponents fragile within the legs in the reference to your own title. Learn how to earn Darkfall gold money as well as fill up upon every item you'll need so the periodic reduction does not ruin your money. Regardless of what your own perform design or even encounter degree, there's some thing within the Darkfall guide for you personally. Skill Management:Darkfall On the internet is about abilities, therefore equipping your self along with confirmed ability administration methods is essential. While you might discover brand new abilities from any kind of provided second, there's a gentle limit which considerably decelerates your own currently hard ability increases. Do not spend your time attempting abilities and then uncover that they're useless or even do not match how you perform. With this Darkfall On the internet guide, you're certain to understand just the abilities which enhance your own actively playing design whatsoever period of time feasible, to be able to rapidly create a title on your own within the Tale program. Gold Making Strategies:Perhaps you have turn out to be as well acquainted with the actual ineffective precious metal producing initiatives along with therefore small results? The actual precious metal producing strategies provided within the Darkfall On the internet manual will help you share your own financial institution as well as cheap darkfall gold fulfill each and every investing require inside some time. Learn to take your time really actively playing the overall game, instead of looking to get prepared to perform. Combat, PvP and Warfare: Having issues getting upward using the difficult as well as fast-paced fight program? Don't let this particular impede your own possibility of successful throughout fight, and not once again shed your own belongings whenever opponents loot your own corpse. Regardless

From the cranial sutures to the rib cage and beyond, surveying x-rays of anatomical parts of the human body has been a keen interest of mine. My anatomy class helped me realize that treating and diagnosing people through medicine would be the field I woul

2012-12-14T09:53:27.463-05:00

We will roll out a return to Darkfall marketing

2012-12-07T02:17:49.13-05:00

This promotion has two parts, one has related to the prices and one along with actual game-play. On the prices component, once we already mentioned, the customer buy cost will be eliminated and you'll only need to spend a month-to-month subscription. Additionally we are reducing the membership cost. So, to be able to play Darkfall you will simply have to

SWTOR dangling upon with regard to expensive existence

2012-08-28T05:15:55.42-04:00

EA as well as Bioware produced a good brand new method for Celebrity Conflicts enthusiasts to savor the actual much far world along with Celebrity Conflicts: The actual Aged Republic MMOG. The internet game's discharge had been extremely expected, because had been the actual transformation in order to free-to-play up-to degree 15. The hoopla

Technology

2007-12-13T00:04:42-05:00

Technology Many people believe that the use of technology is harmful to our daily lives, while others oppose the idea that technology is harmful. Some think it makes life easier to live compared to many years ago. There are different types of technology including phones, television, cars, computers, and factory machines. Technology has a lot of impact on our lives which is helpful in certain ways and is fun to use, but sometimes has to be disregarded due to the negative effects it has on our lives. Phones are one of the most important pieces of technologies ever invented that have become part of our lives. Without phones, it would be very difficult to send messages from one place to another or to communicate with someone. People would have to use the mailing services which would take some couple of days to reach the destination. Phones are important because they help us during emergencies. When accidents happen, phones are needed in order to call the ambulance to take the injured person to the hospital. By using the phone at that moment, the victim’s life could be saved. Phones have negative impacts on our lives. They can cause users to pay unwanted bills if misused. Sometimes we browse through the cell phones and do things out of ignorance. We are then charged extra money for doing something we weren’t sure of doing. Phones help us communicate with people easily and sometimes save our lives, but causes us troubles if misused. Television is also another technology designed to bring us entertainment and as a medium of communication in the world. Televisions keep us company whenever we are bored. It’s also through television that news and weather are broadcasted to us so we can be aware of incidents that have happened in other places and what the weather will be like in our vicinity. With the absence of television children will be bored and might do things like trespass, fight in the streets or do drugs that will get them into trouble. They could be arrested and sent to the penitentiary, if they are caught doing one of the above. Television keeps children inside because they watch different shows which keep them entertained. Even though television keeps the children away

importance of fire fighting

2007-12-11T03:35:59-05:00

The most essential element of successful firefighting is confident leadership. Those who fight fires in our country are taught three main values: duty, respect, and integrity. They must be proficient at what they do, make timely and sound decisions, and ensure tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished. They have to develop their subordinates to be leaders, they must look out for them and their well-being, and they need to build them into functioning teams. Each individual is taught to seek self-improvement, seek and accept responsibility, and above all, set the example, sometimes these examples are life and death situations where we learn from it and teach others how to react and or prevent it. Simulators and those that invent them can only think of so many unpredictable situations and contraptions that can train us, for the sheer fact that the fury of a fire can not be predicted and anything can happen. The business of fighting fires is no joke, it is a serious encounter and your decisions as well as the entire command structure will contribute to the conclusion of each very different type of crisis. Firefighters from throughout the country, salaried and volunteer, are battling fires with everything they’ve got. But before all this is achieved, first you must not only fulfill the physical requirements, but you must establish a mental desire and develop discipline. All firefighters know how to physically fight a fire and what is needed to complete the tasks involved, but what some may not be aware of is the respect that is required toward the instructors while we train. A very common mistake that young trainees make is not treating instruction and exercise as if it was a legit operation. Some goof off, give half the effort, and yes some do give there all, and make mistakes and learn from them. They are the ones that will make the difference on the fire ground, and those that thought training was a breeze, will not know how to handle the fierce complications that a fire offers because they were not mentally focused and determined. Rules as simple as “two in two out,” and “no person is left alone,” is required for approved interior operations, the same should apply to anything instructed outside. If one trainee fails to perform and is punished by rolling hose, he shouldn’t complete this alone, it should without thought or hesitation

The Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering (Cloning)

2007-11-29T07:28:41-05:00

Four billion years ago, life arose on the Earth. Four billion years later, human beings begin to look into the secrets hidden in genes, which are the most delicate structure of life. Scientists in recent years have completed the Human Genome Project, which is one of the three most important advances in scientific history. Cloning is the major technique developed in the research of genes. To clone means to make genetically identical copies. As for human cloning, it is achieved by putting the genetic material from a donor’s somatic cell into a woman‘s egg, which has already had its nucleus removed. That is to say, the cloning cells share the same genetic materials with the donor. When it comes to human cloning, people begin to diverse in their opinions. Some think human cloning as gift from God while the others regard it as the work of Satan. Bioethics, which is the study of value judgments pertaining to human conduct in the area of biology and includes those related to the practice of medicine, has been an important aspect of all areas in the scientific field (Bernstein, Maurice, M.D.). It is one of the factors that says whether or not certain scientific research can go on, and if it can, under which rules and regulations it must abide by. One of the most recent and controversial issues facing our society today is the idea of cloning. It is true that we are just on the brink of discovering all of the dangers and benefits of genetic engineering and there is a lot of important information that still remains unknown. But instead of seeing the immense potential benefits of this mind-boggling discovery, the American public - fed on science fiction novels, horror stories of environmental disaster, a “growing mistrust of science” (Nelkin 1), and the fear of the unknown – automatically reject this god sent breakthrough. In February of 1997, the biotechnology firm PPL Therapeutics in association with the Roslin Institute of Edinburgh, Scotland announced the first successful fully cloned mammal. They had cloned a lamb from an adult sheep, which they named Dolly after Dolly Parton (Mario,Christopher). The two shared the same nucleic DNA, but differed in terms of their mitochondrial DNA, which is vitally important for the regulation of the cell. The media and

Child Care Research

2007-10-13T16:26:11-04:00

Investigation of Child Care Options For this report I decided to do research on the Lipton Corporate Child Care Center, which is located in White Plains NY. I learned about this center through applying for a teaching position that they had available and within two weeks I was allowed to work for the center part time. While working this past week I was able to find out important information for parents who are interested in this Child Care Center. The Lipton Center is a corporate based company which only allows specific corporate companies to advertise their child care center through use of that company's human resource office. For example, the Heineken company advertises to their workers ( who have children) through e-mails or bulletin boards about the Lipton Center with permission from the center. If a parent wanted to find out more about the Lipton Center, there are numbers available for different sites and different states, there are centers all over the Tri State area, including Philadelphia, New Jersey, Virgina, and Washingtion DC. Usually parents will notify their Human Resource office about their interest in the center and the office will set up a meeting at the specific location in which the parent requested. If a parent was interested in the White Plains location, they would be meeting with Rebecca Rosenberg where she would discuss all the available options that would accommodation the parents and the child. If parents wanted to enroll their child into the program, the average cost for children 3-12months at 3 days a week would be $362 dollars, any additional days would be an additional $133 dollars. The older the child is the less costly it becomes, for example if a child is over 37 months, it is $232 dollars for 3 days a week, the additional cost for extra days would be $0 dollars. Before the parents can have the center care for their child, they first must pay a one time registration fee and fill out a registration packet which includes a photo of the child and requires a yearly medical exam form to be filled out by the child's doctor. The Lipton child care program includes: drop off at 8 am/ 6 pm pick up, light snacks every 3 hours, nap time, diaper change every 2 hours, arts and crafts, and out door activities. You will find a newly designed

Child Care Research

2007-10-13T16:25:35-04:00

Nurture VS Nurture

2007-10-13T10:59:42-04:00

INTRODUCTION The nature versus nurture debates concern the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities ("nature") versus personal experiences ("nurture") in determining or causing individual differences in physical and behavioral traits. The view that humans acquire all or almost all their behavioral traits from "nurture" is known as Tabula Rasa ("blank slate"). This question was once considered to be an appropriate division of developmental influences, but since both types of factors are known to play such interacting roles in development, modern psychologists consider the question naive - representing an outdated state of knowledge. APPROACHES The Scientific Approach: In order to disentangle the effects of genes and environment, behavioral geneticists perform adoption and twin studies. Behavioral geneticists do not generally use the term "nurture" in order to explain that portion of the variance for a given trait (such as IQ or the Big Five personality traits) that can be attributed to environmental effects. Instead, two different types of environmental effects are distinguished: shared family factors (i.e., those shared by siblings, making them more similar) and nonshared factors (i.e., those that uniquely affect individuals, making siblings different). In order to express the portion of the variance that is due to the "nature" component, behavioral geneticists generally refer to the heritability of a trait. With regard to the Big Five personality traits as well as adult IQ in the general U.S. population, the portion of the overall variance that can be attributed to share family effects is often negligible. On the other hand, most traits are thought to be at least partially heritable. In this context, the "nature" component of the variance is generally thought to be more important than that ascribed to the influence of family upbringing. In her Pulitzer Prize-nominated book The Nurture Assumption, author Judith Harris argues that "nurture," as traditionally defined in terms family upbringing and socioeconomic status, does not effectively explain the variance for most traits (such as adult IQ and the Big Five personality traits) in the general population of the United States. On the contrary, Harris suggests that either peer groups or random environmental factors (i.e., those that are independent of family upbringing) are more important than family environmental effects Although "nurture" has historically been referred to as the care given to children by

Nature vs. Nurture

2007-10-12T14:59:51-04:00

Role of Information Technology in Real Estate

2007-10-12T14:50:19-04:00

INTRODUCTION The real estate industry brings together people and information. For example, information from a real estate developer’s job site may be shared with field operations, production scheduling, accounting, sales and many other internal departments. Not only is the information shared internally, but also with outside business contacts such as architectural and engineering firms. In order to understand the role of IT in real estate related companies, the nature of the real estate industry in general should be considered. Real estate is generally characterized as having a three-phased cycle including inventory Absorption, New Development and Contraction due to excess supply. As the economy expands, the demand for real estate gradually begins to grow. This initial growth results in the gradual absorption of residential and commercial properties. Office vacancies start to decline as empty space is absorbed, rents begin to stabilize and eventually start to rise. At first, rents remain below the levels needed to make new construction possible. After a period of time, as demand accelerates, markets tighten and rent rises sharply causing property prices to start to rise. IT projects that were put on hold during the previous real estate down cycle remain on hold until cash flow improves. Employees make due with existing computer equipment until financial situation improves. Computers and the Internet have been billed as enabling new ways of doing business, but in the residential real estate industry, people's expanded access to information hasn't rendered the real estate agent a relic, says a Penn State researcher. "The expectation was that real estate agents would go away once consumers could see all the home listing information, but the number of real estate agents has increased, not decreased, in the last 10 years," says Steve Sawyer, associate professor in the School of Information Sciences and Technology (IST). So has the number of people involved in real-estate transactions--contrary to the assumption that information technologies would streamline and simplify the transaction process. Instead, the amount of relevant information about real estate has exploded, requiring more people and more specialized professionals to be involved in supporting, understanding and processing that information. Those insights into the changes in the real estate industry due to the use of computing are discussed in a research article, "Redefining Access: Uses and Roles of Information and Communication Technologies in the U.S. Residential Real Estate Industry from 1995 to 2005," published recently in the Journal of Information Technology. Sawyer, lead author,

Role of Information Technology in Real Estate

2007-10-12T14:47:47-04:00

Role of Information Technology in Real Estate

2007-10-12T14:46:05-04:00

Role of Information Technology in Real Estate

2007-10-12T14:45:38-04:00

ALUMINIUM VERSUS ALUMINUM - Why a difference in spelling

2007-02-13T14:40:33-05:00

The metal was named by the English chemist Sir Humphry Davy, even though he was unable to isolate it: that took another two decades’ work by others. He derived the name from the mineral called alumina, which itself had only been named in English by the chemist Joseph Black in 1790. Black took it from the French, who had based it on alum, a white mineral that had been used since ancient times for dyeing and tanning, among other things. Chemically, this is potassium aluminium sulphate (a name which gives me two further opportunities to parade my British spellings of chemical names). Sir Humphry made a bit of a mess of naming this new element, at first spelling it alumium (this was in 1807) then changing it to aluminum, and finally settling on aluminium in 1812. His classically educated scientific colleagues preferred aluminium right from the start, because it had more of a classical ring, and chimed harmoniously with many other elements whose names ended in –ium, like potassium, sodium, and magnesium, all of which had been named by Davy. The spelling in –um continued in occasional use in Britain for a while, though that in –ium soon predominated. In the USA—perhaps oddly in view of its later history—the standard spelling was aluminium right from the start. This is the only form given in Noah Webster’s Dictionary of 1828, and seems to have been standard among US chemists throughout most of the nineteenth century; it was the preferred version in The Century Dictionary of 1889 and is the only spelling given in the Webster Unabridged Dictionary of 1913. However, there is evidence that the spelling without the final i was used in various trades and professions in the US from the 1830s onwards and that by the 1870s it had become the more common one in American writing generally. Actually, neither version was often encountered early on: up to about 1855 it had only ever been made in pinhead quantities because it was so hard to extract from its ores; a new French process that involved liquid sodium improved on that to the extent that Emperor Napoleon III had some aluminium cutlery made for state banquets, but it still cost much more than gold. When the statue of Eros in Piccadilly Circus in London was cast from aluminium in 1893 it was still an exotic and expensive choice. This changed only when a

Graduration Day

2006-12-19T22:20:44-05:00

Clemmitt, C Philosophy 195 Steven, C Graduation day and I’m freaking out. Panic is becoming my state of mind, as it’s hard to breathe and in the back of throat feels as if a monster is crawling up it. In about 10 seconds I will have to walk the across the stage, I don’t remember the following seconds leading up to the moment or even how I got here. How the hell could this have happen on graduation day? Outside it’s a warm sunny day as the line of students moves closer towards the podium I look out into the crowd to see anyone I know. I find myself at a lost again blinded by the sun reflection. I can not see a single face, but heard a girl behind me as she bumps into me and with a harsh whisper said, “You’re next”. I start to walk in slow motion in my green gown and with the first step I feel a thug from

Friedman: The World is Flat -- America's Future in Engineering

2006-12-05T01:30:12-05:00

In nearly every science-fiction film ever produced, the pinnacle of excitement is always when a captain demands that the ship be “shifted into warp drive.” While the concept of “warp drive” may still not be developed in respect to today’s vehicles, the concept is now applicable to the current world’s lightening swift advances in technology, communications and globalization as a whole. This is the pillar upon which Thomas L Friedman bases The World is Flat, in which Friedman explains his contention of the apparent “flattening” of the world in several interesting facets. Friedman discusses ten forces that “flattened” the world, some of which being the current trends toward outsourcing and off-shoring. Furthermore, Friedman examines the rapid economic and technological progress of eastern nations of the world, most notably India and China, while contrasting the increase in their abilities to compete in the global economy with America’s decreasing ability to do the same. Friedman attributes this current decline to our waning emphasis on science and engineering, as well as our academic system as a whole. This is not the end of America’s dominance, however; there are several methods by which we may revise and thus improve our educational system. The world is flat: what was once solely available in America is now equally, and at times superiorly, available in other eastern nations. It used to be that students in eastern nations were pushed to succeed academically for the sole purpose of obtaining the opportunity to succeed in America. This is no longer the case; eastern nations now have the capability to literally breed and nurture students who ultimately become experts in the fields of science and engineering—better than their American counterparts. Friedman illustrates that this is a dramatic effect of our flattening world; the opportunities for such education are becoming rapidly available in several other parts of the world. The most significant cause for this “flattening” that is apparent is the “dot com boom.” The creation of the Internet is the most prominent reason for the world becoming “flat.” Friedman explains that while Americans were busy marveling at their new invention and the fact that the entire world is now connected, other countries began to take advantage of this powerful tool and have been rapidly progressing with its aid for the past ten years. Not only have other countries

Creating a profile of a developmental stage of the lifespan- adolescent

2006-09-20T06:50:44-04:00

Creating a profile of a developmental stage of the lifespan In this essay, I am going to discuss the developmental stage of the adolescent aged from 12 to 20 years old from the physical development like puberty and sexual maturity, the social development like peer pressure, popularity and rejection in school and the issues surrounding them like juvenile delinquency and gangs, eating disorders like obesity, anorexia nervosa and bulimia. I will also be touching on the causes of these issues. Physical Development during adolescence Between the ages of 12 to 20 is considered the most life changing, awkward and exciting stage of a human being’s life as they will go through the physical changes which might cause them to have some embarrassing moments. Physical and sexual maturation are processes set in motion by the genes and executed by hormones. Most males and females feel most awkward during this stage as it is during this time that physical attraction between the two sexes will develop and they become more conscious of their own appearance. Adolescents experienced the most dramatic physical changes during this stage as their body undergoes a range of transformation from child to adult. What they are experiencing is called puberty, the process of biological change that results in an individual’s attaining sexual maturity and becoming capable of producing a child. (Sigelman and Rider, 2006, p.130) As the level of growth hormones circulating in the body increases, the adolescent growth spurt is triggered. Girl’s peak growth for height is around 12 years while for boys it is 13.4 years. Both sexes will return to a slower rate of growth after experiencing that peak of growth spurt. Both sexes develop muscles rapidly but boys usually gain a greater proportion of muscle mass than girls. Girls will gain extra fats in the breasts, hips and buttocks while boys will develop broader shoulders. The sexual maturity part will follow, whereby it refers to the ability for a male to father a child and a female to carry a fetus to term. The primary sex characteristics like the testes and penis in males will develop around the age of 11 and a half years old while the ovaries, uterus and vagina in females will develop around 12 and a half years old. Secondary sex characteristics like breasts development for

Money spent on research is almost a good investment, even when the results of that research are cont

2006-08-29T06:18:15-04:00

Money spent on research is almost a good investment, even when the results of that research are controversial. Here we are talking about a good investment on a controversial research. A good investment is something where we get good returns. Research has always been a good return as it throws light on some of the hidden information. In this fast growing world information is power as well as key to success. Research is an active, diligent and systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts, events, behaviors, or theories, or to make practical applications with the help of such facts, laws or theories. Investing money on such a thing always proves to be fruitful. The success or failure of a research is measured as how much it is going to help the mankind. But in the end whatever is the result I think we all get a better picture and become aware of some information which was hidden from us. Ultimately once people come to know about the research then these people only decide whether it is a controversy or not. Looking into some of the controversial researches till date “The Human Cloning – Successfully created cloned human embryos for the purpose of extracting their stem cells. Those are the building block cells that ultimately develop into all specialized cells and tissues of the human body.” This in itself has two sides one it has enormous life saving potential, people can be cured from a range of diseases from diabetes to Parkinsons to Alzeimer’s and the other side is the reproductive cloning, which is the effort to produce a human child or baby. Being in a controversy still this proves to give a new hope and life to the people suffering from diabetes, Parkinsons or Alzeimer’s to name the few. Investing money in something which is for the better of the mankind in itself can be appreciated highly. What can be a better return than bringing smile on millions of faces. But at the same we should not ignore the other side of the coin

Online Alexithymia Questionnaire (OAQ)

2006-05-26T02:22:40-04:00

Online Alexithymia Questionnaire target-factors: [GO TO THIS LINK FOR AN AUTOMATED VERSION OF THIS QUESTIONNAIRE: http://tinyurl.com/y9eerf ] F1 - Difficulty Identifying Feelings - When asked which emotion I’m feeling, I frequently don’t know the answer. - I have puzzling physical sensations that even freinds/aquaintences/others don’t understand. - When I am upset, I don’t know if I am sad, frightened, or angry. - I am often puzzled by strange sensations in my body. - I can’t identify feelings that I vaguely sense are going on inside of me - When involved in difficult or turbulent relationships, I sometimes develop confusing physical symptoms. F-2 - Difficulty Describing Feelings - It is difficult for me to find the right words for my feelings. - I am able to describe my emotions easily. - I find it hard to describe my feelings about other people - I get in a muddle when I try to describe how I feel about an important event. F - 2b Vicarious interpretation of feelings - I often ask other people what they would feel if in my personal situation (any situation), as this better helps me understand what to do. - I tend to rely on other people for interpreting the emotional details of personal/social events. - I like it when someone describes the feelings they experience under circumstances similar to my own, because this helps me see what my own feelings might be. F-3 - Externally-Oriented Thinking - I prefer to find out the emotional intricacies of my problems rather than just describe them in terms of practical facts. - You cannot functionally live your life without being aware of your deepest emotions. - I feel more comfortable talking to freinds about their daily activities rather than their feelings. - I prefer to watch "light" entertainment shows rather than psychological dramas. - I find examination of my feelings useful in solving personal problems. - I don't like movies or plays where more time is spent on the characters' motivation than on the action because it distracts from their enjoyment. - I make decisions based on principles rather than gut feelings. F - 4 - Restricted Imaginative Processes (This section targets the missing ‘spontaneous imagination’ as differentiated from ‘controlled imagination’) - When other people are hurt or upset, I have difficulty imagining what they are feeling. - People sometimes get upset with me, and I can’t imagine why - I am not much of a daydreamer - I don’t dream frequently, and when I do the dreams usually seem

Computer Games: Addictive and Time-Consuming

2006-05-03T13:09:17-04:00

Entertainment plays a big role in everyday life. “Games, video, computer, online games, Playstations, etc can be used as entertainment and stress relief by many.” (Woolley). Games are created to give people some time of pleasure and fun, time to get away from the world and don’t think about the problems they face. But entertainment has become a business. Companies dealing with entertainment business make millions of dollars by (for example) putting a single computer game on sale. Their success depends on their products, and if the product is an MMO (mass multiplayer on-line) Game then their success will be great. Because even though MMO Games are created with the same purpose of a normal game – to entertain, they do cause addiction. Marie Winn says “the essence of any serious addiction is a pursuit of pleasure, a search for a 'high' that normal life does not supply.” in her Plug-In Drug (“Electronic Heroin.”) She presents watching television as a serious addiction, comparing it to heroin addiction and alcohol addiction. Accordingly MMO Games addiction is very similar to what she explains about television addiction in her essay. She says “television experience allows the participant to blot out the real world and enter into a pleasurable and passive mental state. The worries and anxieties of reality are as effectively deferred by becoming absorbed in a television program as by going on a 'trip' induced by drugs or alcohol. And just as alcoholics are only vaguely aware of their addiction, feeling that they control their drinking more than they really do, people similarly overestimate their control over television watching.” (“Electronic Heroin”) MMO Games share this very serious problem with television addiction. They give people pleasure, and can be used as an escape of the real world entering that “passive and pleasurable mental state” in the game’s fantasy world the same way the television gives the ‘escape’ to television viewers. The main reason MMO Games rise the addiction issue is the way their game-play is arranged. Single player games offer players a set of objectives and when it is completed then the game is over and the fun and pleasure of that game is over. Unlike single player games, MMO Games give the player a character and place him in a fantasy world where he can experience virtual adventures. All players from the whole world are placed in this fantasy world with the help of

Who am I? Where is here? When is now?

2006-05-02T03:13:54-04:00

Often when I look at the stars when Iâ€™m in bed at night I shudder to think of my insignificance in the immensity of the Universe. The distances in the Universe are inconceivably huge, so we measure them in light-minutes or light years. A light minute is the distance light travels in one minute, and thatâ€™s a long way, because light travels through space at 300,000 km a second. So in a minute it would travel 18,000,000 km. The distance of the Sun from the earth is about eight light-minutes__which means that the light falling on us has travelled eight minutes through space before it reaches us. When we look at the Sun it is actually what it was like eight minutes before. Same is the case with other planets, e.g. if Mars is â€˜xâ€™ light-hours away from us, and someone goes on Mars and looks at the earth with a powerful telescope he would see the earth as it looked x hours before. If we could reach Mars in x hours, may be, we, on Mars looking at the earth, would watch our rocket taking off! Itâ€™s really hard to believe that the nearest star we see on a starry night is 50,000 light years away from the earth. Actually, the star may not be there at that instant, but it surely was some 50,000 years ago! Thus we can never know what the Universe looks like right now, we only know how it looked like then. Assuming that man was able to devise a space-craft which could travel with the speed of light, and could land at a station in space, like Mars, or even the moon, that would work as a time machine using the principle described above. Watching the situation on the earth at whichever point in history would be possible, we could even investigate murders, look at the lifestyle of the early man, we could even see who was responsible for the attacks on World Trade Centre, for instance!! But the problem is that if we have to go 3 hours back in time, we would land on Mars, and if we want to go 6 hours back in time, we would land on Pluto. Provided we have powerful telescopes enough to give a good view of the earth from a place as far as 2 light-years! Which is quite impossible. That is why the idea of a

Investigation into the factors that effect rennin

2006-01-17T16:29:23-05:00

RESEARCH I know that Rennin is an enzyme, so before conducting this experiment I am first going to do some research into enzymes and their effects. 1. Enzymes Enzymes are large globular molecules of which the vast majority are protein in nature, though some, known as 'ribozymes' are made of RNA. Enzymes have catalytic properties; in other words, they alter the rate of reaction without themselves undergoing a permanent change. Most chemical reactions require an initial input of energy, called activation energy, to enable them to occur. Enzymes reduce the need for activation energy and so allow reactions to take place more readily and at lower temperatures than would otherwise be necessary. This can be seen in the graphs. 2. Enzyme Action Enzymes, as biological catalysts, can be used in both anabolism (the build up of simple chemicals into complex ones) and catabolism (the breakdown of complex chemicals into simpler ones), although the latter is more common especially in the animal digestive system. As shown in the next diagram it is thought that the substrate molecules fit precisely into the enzyme molecules. This theory is referred to as the lock and key mechanism. However, in practice, it is likely that the enzyme itself to some extent is the substrate. The part of the enzyme molecule into which the substrate fits is called the active site. The configuration of the enzyme is due to ionic bonding, hydrogen bonding, disulphide bridges and hydrophobic interactions. 3. Specificity The substrate molecule makes a precise fit into the active site and though the enzyme may be flexible up to a point, the number of molecules which can fit into the active site is very small - in fact it is often limited to just one type. Therefore enzymes are specific to one type of reaction. 4. Reversibility Enzymes can catalyse the forward and reverse reactions equally. 5. Temperature As temperature increases, the molecules, according to the 'Kinetic Theory' move faster, due to increased energy. Therefore, the enzyme and substrate molecules will meet more often and the rate at which the product is formed will increase. However, as the temperature continues to rise the hydrogen and ionic bonds, which hold the enzyme in shape, break and the active site will no longer accommodate the substrate. The enzyme is then said to be denatured - this cannot be reversed. 6. pH Efficient functioning of an enzyme depends upon the shape of its active site. This shape is determined, in part, by

Revenge

2006-01-17T08:38:49-05:00

Revenge cannot be explained through psychological analysis, revenge is a human instinct. It is traced back to the days of the cavemen, an eye for an eye, and a limb for a limb. Revenge is a reoccurring natural event that takes place when the jurisdiction of a government cannot act quick enough to eliminate emotion from justice. Justice is essentially revenge without the excess emotions involved. Justice is such an impersonal process that most if not all emotions are removed, making it justice and not revenge. “Revenge is a sort of savage justice,” Webster’s dictionary defines the word “savage” as not domesticated or under human control. Since justice is a human idea does that not mean that revenge is primal? Revenge is a primal instinct, native to man and only to be controlled by an invention of his. Revenge can often be seen in nature, in animals, in the state of nature. Before man had government he was free. Free from guidelines, free from rules, but bound by fear of his life, in fear of revenge. When

Acid Rain

2006-01-02T13:05:58-05:00

Acid Rain Written by: Ali Ridha Introduction Acid rain has become an environmental concern of global importance within the last decade. With the increasing environmental awareness of the "unhealthy" condition of our planet earth the concern about acid rain has not lessened. In brief, acid rain is rain with pH values of less than 5.6. When dealing with acid rain one must study and understand the process of making Sulfuric acid. In this project we will take an in depth look into the production of sulfuric acid, some of its uses and the effects of it as a pollutant in our environment. Sulfuric Acid Industry in Ontario Among the many plants in Ontario where sulfuric acid is produced, there are three major plant locations that should be noted on account of their greater size. These are: 1. Inco. - Sudbury 2. Noranda Mines Ltd. - Welland 3. Sulfide - Ontario There are a number of factors which govern the location of each manufacturing plant. Some of these factors that have to be considered when deciding the location of a Sulfuric Acid plant are: a. Whether there is ready access to raw materials; b. Whether the location is close to major transportation routes; c. Whether there is a suitable work force in the area for plant construction and operation; d. Whether there is sufficient energy resources readily available; e. Whether or not the chemical plant can carry out its operation without any unacceptable damage to the environment. Listed above are the basic deciding factors that govern the location of a plant. The following will explain in greater detail why these factors should be considered. 1) Raw Materials The plant needs to be close to the raw materials that are involved in the production of sulfuric acid such as sulfur, lead, copper, zinc sulfides, etc.. 2) Transportation A manufacturer must consider proximity to transpor-tation routes and the location of both the source of raw materials and the market for the product. The raw materials have to be transported to the plant, and the final product must be transported to the customer or distributor. Economic pros and cons must also be thought about. For example, must sulfuric plants are located near the market because it costs more to transport sulfuric acid than the main raw materials, sulfur. Elaborate commission proof container are required for the transportation of sulfuric acid while sulfur can be much more easily transported by truck or railway car. 3) Human Resources For a sulfuric acid plant

Acid Rain

2006-01-02T13:05:15-05:00

Acid Rain Written by: Unregistered Introduction Acid rain has become an environmental concern of global importance within the last decade. With the increasing environmental awareness of the "unhealthy" condition of our planet earth the concern about acid rain has not lessened. In brief, acid rain is rain with pH values of less than 5.6. When dealing with acid rain one must study and understand the process of making Sulfuric acid. In this project we will take an in depth look into the production of sulfuric acid, some of its uses and the effects of it as a pollutant in our environment. Sulfuric Acid Industry in Ontario Among the many plants in Ontario where sulfuric acid is produced, there are three major plant locations that should be noted on account of their greater size. These are: 1. Inco. - Sudbury 2. Noranda Mines Ltd. - Welland 3. Sulfide - Ontario There are a number of factors which govern the location of each manufacturing plant. Some of these factors that have to be considered when deciding the location of a Sulfuric Acid plant are: a. Whether there is ready access to raw materials; b. Whether the location is close to major transportation routes; c. Whether there is a suitable work force in the area for plant construction and operation; d. Whether there is sufficient energy resources readily available; e. Whether or not the chemical plant can carry out its operation without any unacceptable damage to the environment. Listed above are the basic deciding factors that govern the location of a plant. The following will explain in greater detail why these factors should be considered. 1) Raw Materials The plant needs to be close to the raw materials that are involved in the production of sulfuric acid such as sulfur, lead, copper, zinc sulfides, etc.. 2) Transportation A manufacturer must consider proximity to transpor-tation routes and the location of both the source of raw materials and the market for the product. The raw materials have to be transported to the plant, and the final product must be transported to the customer or distributor. Economic pros and cons must also be thought about. For example, must sulfuric plants are located near the market because it costs more to transport sulfuric acid than the main raw materials, sulfur. Elaborate commission proof container are required for the transportation of sulfuric acid while sulfur can be much more easily transported by truck or railway

Pros and cons of genetic alteration

2005-12-10T17:38:03-05:00

Do you want to be exceptionally good at sports? Excluding the fact that you may be naturally gifted and/or you have trained for sports most extensively, but imagine becoming far better than everyone else without making any effort. If so, genetic alteration is already considered a “cheat” in the game of life. In the Keeper of the Isis Light, Guardian has surgically and genetically modified Olwen to make her stronger and more adapted to planet Isis. Basically genetic alternation would involve manipulating genes in DNA in human to create satisfactory effect, preferably stronger and healthier body. In reality the technology is still in its infancy, we still have to figure out which gene is responsible for what and the possible side effects. It is a very controversial issue. Genetic alteration is supported by many people as many often think of human enhancements. In the book, Guardian thickened Olwen’s skin so that it would be opaque to the ultra-violet rays, gave her an extra eyelid to protect her eyes from Ra, deepened her ribcage and extended her vascular system so that she can store much more oxygen at each breath, and widened her nostrils to help her breath more fully. Also he strengthened her ankles and thickened her fingernails to help her climb. These modifications proved to be crucial in Olwen’s survival and freedom, and no doubt it will be helpful when we can set foot on Mars. In the field of treating diseases created by genetic disorder, such as cancer and downs syndrome, genetic alteration can put an end to those and save millions of lives. And for those who wish for the same kind of physical, mental or maybe even emotional improvements that Olwen got, unfortunately only time can ripen perfection in this tricky procedure. Then all of us might be smart and equal. Prior to the mastering of that kind of technology, there are oppositions that are currently hindering full-force research programs. With ethic issues on top of the list, religious groups say it is against the Bible and God’s intention of human creation, while nonreligious groups say it is tampering with the fundamental structure of human species and disrupting the natural life and evolution process. If genetically alteration exists, only the very rich can afford to have it done on them, and after that they will be “superhuman”, better than all the people on Earth in all aspects. If you

WINE

2005-12-01T04:54:39-05:00

A Brief History of Wine "Pinot needs constant care and attention, it can't thrive if neglected.” (Film Sideways) ‘Wine is an alcoholic beverage that is made by fermenting grapes or grape juice. Wine-like beverages can also be made from other fruits or from flowers, grains, and even honey.’ (Wikipedia.org encyclopedia online) Wine, has been firmly established at the heart of civilization since ancient times. Wine is thought to have it’s origins in the Caucasus Mountains of Georgia. Among the first cultures to cultivate wine was the Egyptians, Greeks and Europeans. In ancient Egypt, wine played an important part in ceremonial life. ‘The ancient Greeks drank to the God Dionysus, in order to forgot about there worries a tradition they inherited by the Romans, who drank to their god Bacchus.’ (Wines of the World. Susan Keevil. Pg.15). Wine, has been and is an important drink in religion. In Christianity for example, wine symbolizes Christ’s blood. The representation of wine as blood has Greek origins, pre-dating Christianity. Wine, as a blessing is part of the Jewish ritual. One of Christ’s great miracles was turning water into wine at a wedding. (A great host indeed.) In the 16th century, Europeans set out into the new world, there culture which included religion and their wines helped influenced other Countries to embrace this magical drink. Being clean and safer to drink than water, wine was consumed to great amounts. In France, a bottle of wine can be cheaper than a bottle of spring water even in modern times. ‘At the end of the 20th century the world had over 8 million hectares under vine and was producing nearly 300 million hectoliters of wine. Wine now, is now made virtually all over the world.’ (Wines of the World. Susan Keevil. Pg.10). However with that being said results may vary. Wine experts consider the best tasting wines, is from countries such as France, Italy and Spain. One of the worst tasting wines I ever tasted was wine from Bolivia in South America, the taste was too sweet. This may have to do with how wine is cultivated, and how the weather and climate affect the grapes in the vineyard. Now we drink wine to Gods and Devils, The

Comp Sci

2005-11-30T06:08:28-05:00

Random Variable A random variable X is a rule that assigns a numerical value to each outcome in the sample space of an experiment. A discrete random variable can take on specific, isolated numerical values, like the outcome of a roll of a die, or the number of dollars in a randomly chosen bank account. A continuous random variable can take on any values within a continuum or an interval, like the temperature in Central Park, or the height of an athlete in centimeters. Discrete random variables that can take on only finitely many values (like the outcome of a roll of a die) are called finite random variables. Probability Distribution The probability P(X = x) is the probability of the event that X = x. Similarly, the probability that P(a < X < b) is the probability of the event that X lies between a and b. These probabilities may be estimated, empirical, or abstract For a finite random variable, the collection of numbers P(X = x) as x varies is called the probability distribution of X, and it is useful to graph the probability distribution as a histogram. Bernoulli Trials and the Binomial Distribution A Bernoulli trial is an experiment with two possible outcomes, called success and failure. Each outcome has a specified probability: p for success and q for failure (so that p+q = 1). If we perform a sequence of n independent Bernoulli trials, then some of them result in success and the rest of them in failure. The probability of exactly x successes in such a sequence is given by P(exactly x successes in n trials) = C(n,x)pxqn-x. If X is the number of successes in a sequence of n independent Bernoulli trials, with probability p for success and q for failure, then X is said to have a binomial distribution. This distribution is given by the above formula P(X = x) = C(n,x)pxqn-x for x running from 0 to n. Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, and Mode of a Set of Data A collection of specific values, or "scores", x1, x2, . . ., xn of a random variable X is called a sample. If {x1, x2, . . ., xn} is a sample, then the sample mean of the collection is x = x1 + x2 + . . .+ xn n = xi n , where n is the sample size: the number of scores. The sample median m is the middle score (in the case of an odd-size sample), or average of the two middle scores (in the case of an even-size sample), when the scores in a sample are arranged in ascending order. A sample mode is

Stem Cells: Could This Be The Cure For Cancer?

2005-11-07T22:57:10-05:00

Stem Cells: Could this be the technology to cure cancer? By: Ali Ridha Stem cells could be the greatest medical advance in history in the sense that most of our serious diseases can be cured. Stem cells have the potential to morph into other cell types in the body. Serving as a sort of repair system for the body, they can theoretically divide without limit to replenish other cells as long as the person is living. During mitosis, each new cell has the potential to either remain a stem cell or become another type of specialized cell, such as a muscle cell, or a red blood cell. (University of Utah, 2004; Viegas et al, 2003; Parson et al, 2004; Facts on File, 2004). There are three kinds of stem cells in the body: Totipotent stem cells, which have the ability to morph into any kind of cell in the body. These are found in embryos undergoing their early stages. Another type of stem cell is pluripotent stem cells which have the ability to morph into almost any kind of cell in the body. These are found in a blastocyst which is the result of the embryo after 7 days after fertilization (University of Utah, 2004). They are enriched with pluripotent stem cells, which are constantly morphing into other types of cells in order to become a fetus. The last type of stem cell is multipotent stem cells or adult stem cells. These are found in fetuses as well as full grown adults. These stem cells can transform into most kinds of specified cells in the body, but their choices are more limited (Viegas et al, 2003). So why are these stem cells so important and how do they help cure cancer? As of today, there is something called stem cell therapy which is used to treat diseases using stem cells (Munson et al 2002). The goal of stem cell therapy is to repair damaged tissue that cannot heal itself. This is accomplished by transplanting stem cells into the damaged area and directing them to grow into new healthy tissue (University of Utah, 2004). Some stem cell therapies used today are, adult stem cell transplants using bone marrow stem cells, peripheral blood stem cells and umbilical cord blood stem cells. Cell based therapy is just one way to cure cancer, not the only way. For example, let us take the treatment of leukemia,

Tsunami's - A Geologic Hazard - REPORT

2005-11-02T03:38:59-04:00

Please note this is a "Scientific Report" not an essay please bare this in mind. Introduction The word Tsunami is a Japanese term meaning wave in the harbour. It is the most apt description for the hazard as tidal wave or seismic wave lead to incorrect connotations and misunderstandings. The dictionary definition of the word Tsunami itself means a very large ocean wave caused by an underwater earthquake or volcanic eruption, this is only half accurate, which I will attempt to illustrate in this report. Although 85 percent of Tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean (PTWC, web), it is possible for them to occur in any body of water on any part of the Earth. They are not restricted to large oceans and there is the possibility of a tsunami threat in any enclosed body of water. Tsunamis occur infrequently and often with little or no warning especially in regional areas. They can cause unprecedented loss of human life and billions of dollars worth of damage to property and infrastructure. Geologic Cause A tsunami may be generated by any disturbance that displaces a large body of water from its equilibrium position. Most commonly tsunamis are caused by seismic activity on the ocean floor (Hays, 1981). Less commonly they are caused by sub and super marine landslides, sub and super marine volcanic eruptions and very rarely by meteor impacts in the ocean. Tsunamis travel outwards in all directions from where they are generated and can travel huge distances from their point of origination (USGS, web). Earthquakes in subduction zones at convergent plate boundaries where there is enormous stress between the plates generate most tsunamis (USGS, web). When there is a rupture the sudden movement causes energy to be released into the overlying water column. Deep ocean troughs are another area that tsunamis may originate this is from the slumping of sediments on the sea floor and from direct surface rupture on a fault trace (Shane, lecture 16). Collapses of volcanic edifices can also upheave the overlying water as sediment and rock slump downwards and are redistributed across the sea floor. Similarly, a powerful submarine volcanic eruption can create an abrupt force that elevates the water column and generates a tsunami (Hays, 1981). Contrarily, super marine landslides or debris avalanches and meteor impacts displace the water from above, as momentum from falling debris is transferred to the water in which it

Bats

2005-09-26T16:52:06-04:00

There is an abundant amount of animal species in the world. They all have adapted and evolved to survive in their surroundings. Some have grown fins, others legs, and some have wings. Each adaptation helps them to survive in the particular environment in which they live. Some animals that are members of the same species have adapted and evolved. One adaptation is wings, and they are normally thought to be a feature of birds. One of the only animals that has wings and is not a bird is the bat. The bat is a truly great creature. It has all the characteristics of mammals while also possessing the skill of a bird in flight. Though other mammals, like the flying squirrel seem to fly but actually glide, the bat is the only mammal that can truly fly (Wimsatt, 1977). There are approximately 900 species of bats known in the world and 40 of them live in the United States and Canada (www.bat-control.com, 2004). The different species of bats consist of many different sizes, shapes, and lifestyles, which is normally determined by their environment. They live all over the world and have drawn the curiosity of millions. Bats also have the unique feature of echolocation, which is a hunting method it uses in order to catch insects and other prey. It also helps them with a sense of direction. Even though bats are labeled as pests and are looked at as dangerous animals, they are helpful in many ways. The most apparent feature of a bat is the adaptations which enable it to fly. The fore limbs of the bat are built similarly to the general pattern of other mammals. It has an upper arm, forearm, wrist, and hand with thumb and four fingers. The difference is the bones of the hand and fingers are elongated which spreads and manipulates the wing. They also contain fur on the body, large ears, claws, and a tail. As we can see here they are mammals but there have been adaptations that have evolved in order for the bat to survive in its environment (Barbour, 1970). Bats eyesight is not very great. They are known and considered by some to have a “sixth sense” called echolocation, which they use and depend on for

Proteinaceous Infectious Particles

2005-09-21T01:21:26-04:00

Over the years there have been many documented cases of diseases for which there appeared to be no cause. Only within the late 20th century has the reason for these illnesses been brought into the spotlight. The symptoms of these illnesses are usually the loss of coordination followed by dementia, but in some cases an inability to sleep develops into dementia. These symptoms are caused by damaged regions of the brain. This damage occurs in the form of normal tissue changing to a sponge-like consistency. This is caused by cells clumping together and dying, leaving holes in the brain. These diseases fall into the category of spongiform encephalopathies (Collinge, 1995). This type of disease can occur in all mammals and is named after the mammal in which it is found. For example, in cows it is called bovine spongiform encephalopathy, or more commonly known as “mad cow disease”. Spongiform encephalopathies may also occur in humans in the form of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease or Kuru, the latter of which was only found in the Fore tribe of Papua, New Guinea, members of which ate the brains of the dead as a sign of respect. Cannibalism was ended in 1958 due to health concerns. After the deaths of the 2600 afflicted persons, not a single case of Kuru has been recorded. The cause of spongiform encephalopathy is a small protein called a prion, or “proteinaceous infectious particle”. The protein was discovered and named in 1982 by Dr. Stanley B. Prusiner of the Department of Neurology at the University of California School of Medicine. At first, the discovery endured a great deal of skepticism due to the long accepted theory that only microbes can cause disease, which was proposed by Louis Pasteur. The prion protein (PrP for short) was first imagined when the agent that causes scrapie (the type of spongiform encephalopathy which occurs in sheep) was thought to lack nucleic acid (Alper, 1972). This was determined by subjecting infected tissue to ultraviolet or ionizing radiation, both of which are known to degrade nucleic acid. Afterwards, the tissue was injected into the brain tissue of a healthy subject. The infectivity of the tissue remained the same. This proved that there was no nucleic acid present in the infective agent, due to the fact that if it had been a viral or bacterial infection, the nucleic acid within the virus or bacteria would have been destroyed

Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia

2005-08-05T23:28:49-04:00

Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia Alzheimer’s disease is emerging to potentially become the largest medical problem facing the elderly in the 21st century. Right now, an estimated 4.5 million Americans are known to have the disease (Understanding Alz.). A poorly understood illness, Alzheimer's gradually steals away its victim’s mental and physical abilities, leaving them in a chronic out-of-mind state. It can last for an indefinite period, and as a result has a significant impact on all those close to the victim. The disease, by gradually taking away the mind and personality of the sufferer, leads to behaviors that can be extremely difficult to manage, and very frustrating to family and caregivers. Few people genuinely understand what Alzheimer's is, its true affects, and how it affects those around the victim. Alzheimer's disease is a progressive, irreversible brain disorder that has no known cause or cure. There are many different terms for symptoms of forgetfulness and loss of mental clarity; the most well known is Dementia. The term Dementia comes from two Latin words meaning “away” and “mind,” and it is used by doctors to specify “an acute loss of, or impairment of, mental control” (Mace and Rabins 15). Alzheimer’s is the most common form of permanent Dementia (About Alz.). Dementia and Alzheimer's are not the same things. Many different conditions are known to cause Dementia, not all of them affect only elderly people, and not all are fatal. Alzheimer's is a unique syndrome that systematically kills swaths of the brain, causing Dementia in the process. Contrary to popular belief, Alzheimer's is always fatal. Much like AIDS, the immediate cause of death is often a complicating condition, such as pneumonia, but the actual cause of death is the illness (Mace and Rabins 140). Memory change is normal as people age, but Alzheimer's symptoms are more than misplacing car keys and forgetting grandkid’s names. People afflicted with Alzheimer's disease experience difficulties in virtually every aspect of cogitative reasoning (Understanding Alz.). Alzheimer's patients have extreme difficulty performing very familiar tasks, and eventually are unable to perform motor skills learned in early childhood. The thought process affects everything from eating to communicating to breathing. Even the smallest task requires an incredible amount of thought. If the brain misses just one step in the process, the task will

Effects of Alcohol on the Brain

2005-05-15T15:06:28-04:00

Almost everyone has tried alcohol at some stage, and many also use it as a regular basis in parties and other special occasions. When a small amount of alcohol is consumed, it stimulates the appetite and makes it easier for people to produce conversations and it also gives relaxation and good feelings. However excessive drinking can cause serious negative effects. Some of the negative effects are that the individual will start to talk loudly, make inappropriate statements, act aggressively and even pass out. The effect of alcohol on the brain is what causes all these noticeable changes in human behavior. Alcohol has the most noticeable effect on the brain. Alcohol acts like a sedative, which means you feel soothing and relaxing effects. This could make someone feel more relaxed, and end up making fools of themselves and doing things that they later regret. Alcohol blocks the messages going to your brain, and alters your perceptions and emotions, vision, hearing, and coordination. When an individual consumes alcohol through the mouth, it firstly acts as an irritant and then an anesthetic. The stomach and intestinal lining absorbs the alcohol molecules, which are soluble in blood and carry them to the liver. While the liver metabolizes the alcohol the un-metabolized alcohol travels throughout the body. Since the alcohol molecules are very small, they will reach every cell in the body. Alcohol then depressed the functions of the body cells and the organs. The most sensitive organ to alcohol is the brain. The psychoactive ingredient in alcohol in ethanol. Like all the other psychoactive ingredients, ethanol affects the neurotransmitters which are chemical messengers that are manufactured in your brain by neurons and that influence your behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Molecules of all psychoactive substances are able to affect our thinking and behavior because they can cross the blood-brain barrier which is a shield of tiny capillaries in the brain that protects brain cells by screening out many potentially harmful substances. Alcohol affects many different portions of the brain. The first portion is the cerebral cortex. This part is the outermost layer which is responsible for coordinating sensation, perception, speech and judgment. When alcohol affects this portion of the brain the individual experiences slurred speech and misjudgments in thinking. The second portion of the brain affected by alcohol is the cerebellum, which is located at the back of the skull. This part is responsible for

How Your Immune System Works

2005-05-12T05:16:45-04:00

How the Immune System Works The immune system defends the body from attack by "invaders" recognized as foreign. It is an extraordinarily complex system that relies on an elaborate and dynamic communications network that exists among the many different kinds of immune system cells that patrol the body. At the "heart" of the system is the ability to recognize and respond to substances called antigens whether they are infectious agents or part of the body, which are called self anitgens. T and B Cells Most immune system cells are white blood cells, of which there are many types. Lymphocytes are one type of white blood cell, and two major classes of lymphocytes are T cells and B cells. T cells are critical immune system cells that help to destroy infected cells and coordinate the overall immune response. The T cell has a molecule on its surface called the T-cell receptor. This receptor interacts with molecules called MHC or major histocompatibility complex. MHC molecules are on the surfaces of most other cells of the body and help T cells recognize antigen fragments. B cells are best known for making antibodies. An antibody binds to an antigen and marks the antigen for destruction by other immune system cells. Other types of white blood cells include macrophages and neutrophils. Macrophages and Neutrophils Macrophages and neutrophils circulate in the blood and survey the body for foreign substances. When they find foreign antigens, such as bacteria, they "engulf" and destroy them. Macrophages and neutrophils destroy foreign antigens by making toxic molecules such as reactive oxygen intermediate molecules. If production of these toxic molecules continues unchecked, not only are the foreign antigens destroyed, but tissues surrounding the macrophages and neutrophils are also destroyed. For example, in individuals with the autoimmune disease called Wegener's granulomatosis, overactive macrophages and neutrophils that invade blood vessels produce many toxic molecules and contribute to damage of the blood vessels. In rheumatoid arthritis, reactive oxygen intermediate molecules and other toxic molecules are made by overproductive macrophages and neutrophils invading the joints. The toxic molecules contribute to inflammation, which is observed as warmth and swelling, and participate in damage to the joint. MHC and Co-Stimulatory Molecules MHC molecules are found on all cell surfaces and are an active part of the body's defense team. For example, when a virus infects a cell, a MHC molecule binds to a piece of a virus or antigen, and displays

Breeding Roses (this comes in handy for biology if your studying plants and need some extra credit)

2005-05-12T05:15:43-04:00

Every rose breeder has certain more or less definite ideals or objectives toward which his breeding efforts are directed. Some of these ideals are shared by all rosarians, while others express the individuality of the breeder and may or may not find popular acceptance. Thus in my opinion an ideal red rose, for example, should have the following characteristics: 1. ) Vigor similar to Radiance 2 .) Long pointed or urn-shaped buds such as Lulu, Eclipse, or Charlotte Armstrong. 3 .) Glossy or semi-glossy, hard, leathery foliage. 4 .) High degree of mildew and rust resistance. 5 .) Everblooming, rapid "breaking habit". 6 .) Long cutting stems. 7 .) Strong neck. 8 .) Fragrance. 9 .) Absence of blue fading reaction. World's Fair is ideal in this respect. 10.) A high-centered open flower with 25 to 35 large petals. Breeding Plan Although the rose which perfectly meets these ideals may never be developed, any variety which is a step toward perfection is worthy of introduction. In my own experience most rapid progress toward combining all the above characteristics in one plant may be made by crossing variety A, having such desirable characteristics as mildew resistance and large glossy leaves, with variety B, having double dark red flowers but dull foliage, susceptibility to mildew, and short buds (unfortunately characteristics of most red roses so far introduced). Simultaneously variety A is crossed with variety C, having long buds, vigorous growth, and deep pink or light red flowers (hence carrying factors for red). Hybrids from cross A x B having wide glossy leaves, a high degree of mildew resistance, and deep pink or light red double flowers are then crossed with pink-flowered hybrids of A x C having the longest buds and most vigor. Large progenies must be grown in order to get the best combination of characteristics in a very few plants. These sister seedlings with wide glossy leaves, mildew resistance, and fairly long buds, are then crossed together, and in the resulting generation deep red roses having a vigorous growth habit, a high degree of mildew resistance, large glossy leaves, very long buds, and sufficiently double flowers may be expected. In order to understand the need for this type of breeding procedure, a discussion of rose chromosome numbers and behavior as they affect the inheritance of important characteristics is necessary. Mechanics of Inheritance Biologists are agreed that the factors determining the characteristics of plants and animals are serially located in certain deeply staining bodies of the cell

Psychology Theories

2005-05-05T02:57:53-04:00

Sigmund Freud Biography Sigmund Freud was born on 6th May 1856 in Moravia’s town Freiberg. He lived the most of his life in Vienna. Freud was always a brilliant student in his classes. He went to a medical school and became involved in man researches lead by a professor of psychology named Ernst Brucke. Freud was a very good researcher and made new discoveries about his topics. From there he went on with many great psychiatrists like Charcot in Paris and Bernheim in Nancy. He found out a lot about hypnosis and hysterics. After studying abroad in Berlin, he cam back to Vienna and married Martha Bernays. Freud gained fame by writing many books and giving lectures about topics of psychology. During World War II, Freud came to England as Vienna was not a safe place for Jews. Soon after, he died from a mouth cancer disease. But by now Freud had discovered a lot about psychology and today people read his theories and believe in it. Contribution to the Theories of Personality In his life Freud introduced many theories of personality. Some of the main theories include: 1. The idea of conscious versus the unconscious. 2. The id, the ego, and the superego. 3. Life and Death instincts 4. Anxiety 5. The defense mechanisms 6. The stages 7. The Oedipal crisis 8. Character The first theory is the idea of conscious versus the unconscious. Freud defines the conscious mind as what one is aware of at any given moment, one’s present ideas and views, fantasies, thoughts, memories, and feelings. However Freud suggests that the conscious part of our brain is smaller than the unconscious. The unconscious part is the largest and it includes the things that one is not aware of, for example our instincts, memories, emotions, and things that we can’t bear to look at. Freud also says that the unconscious is what gives us motivation for desires of food or sex. The id, ego, and the superego is one of the famous theories introduced by Freud. The first of these is the id. The id works just to keep us pleased and happy. The id demands to take care of our immediate needs, for example if there is someone else’s food kept somewhere then the id forces the hungry person to take the food and don’t care about the consequences. The ego works with the reality principle. The ego takes care of a need by finding rational solutions that might not have harsh consequences, for example if

Nature vs Nurture

2005-05-05T02:56:07-04:00

Nature is when a person is influenced by the inherited genes and nurture is when a person is influenced by the environment and surroundings. One example of nature would be, when a person has brown hair color naturally and he/she nurtures it by changing the color to black. Clearly the black hair color was inherited by the parents, an example of nature and the newly adapted black color was the influence by the environment, an example of nurture. So nature and nurture are two very different things and it’s the person’s choice which one he wants to portray. The nature versus nurture debate has been ever controversial. There is no clear answer to the dispute; however, there are many hypotheses. One of them is that, nature is the genetically inherited traits but nurture enhances it more and helps develop a person. This is the theory in which I believe in. A person inherits all he has, from his parents and then learns more from the environment around him. This is the complete and proper cycle of a person’s development. Although both nature and nurture affect our lifestyle, the influence of one is usually greater than the other. This might vary from people to people, however. Some people might have been more influenced by nature and some might have been more influenced by nurture. The people who are influenced mainly by nature are the ones who chose to take their values from their parents. The ones that are influenced by nurture are the people who usually take their trends from the environment around them. In my life, I have been influenced by both nature and nurture. However, I think nature has a greater affect on me. This is because I take all my decisions based on what I have learned from my parents. I do mix up with the environment and sometimes you need to adjust in the environment by changing your personality. However, this is not the case with me. I take all my values from my parents and I believe that this is the right thing to do. Taking values from the environment is not a very good idea. This is because you never know what you are adapting from the environment is going to be good or bad for your future. Nature really influences my life greatly. This is reflected by my own personality. If I go to

vaccines

2005-05-03T04:16:54-04:00

Since the first vaccine in 1796 for smallpox, made by Edward Jenner, modern science has managed to create vaccines to give us immunity to many deadly diseases. Vaccines have reduced many diseases and have even eradicated others. However, currently there is evidence that not all vaccines are beneficial and that some may actually be harmful. In this essay, I will discuss about what a vaccine is and how they work. I will also discuss the pros and cons of vaccinations, and show some of the advantages and disadvantages of a vaccine as well as the moral and ethical implications on our community. The word vaccine came from the word “vaca” which means cow in Latin. A vaccine is a means of producing immunity against pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria, by the introduction of weakened, killed, or altered antigens. In other words, it prepares the bodies defences against a particular pathogen before it strikes. There are a multiple amount of steps that the human body goes through in order to fight off the disease. First the vaccine is given by a shot or sometimes even in a liquid form by ingesting it. The antigens in the vaccine stimulate the body to produce antibodies, which neutralizes the antigen by binding specifically to it. These antibodies can fight the real disease germs, which can be roaming all around if they invade a human’s body. The antibodies will know how to destroy them and you will not become ill. This is called de-immunization. After exposure to a live, weakened, or dead germ, the antibodies or memory cells fight infectious diseases and usually stay in a person's immune system for a lifetime. There are many types of vaccines that have been generated throughout history. From Edward Jenner, who came up with a vaccination for small pox in 1796, to Louise Pasteur who developed vaccines for rabies and anthrax in 1885, all the way to present date with the research on a HIV/AIDS vaccine. One of the most successful vaccines that have ever been conjured up is the vaccine for Poliomyelitis, commonly known as the poliovirus or polio. Polio is a highly contagious, and sometimes fatal viral infection that can produce permanent muscle weakness, paralysis, and other symptoms. The polio vaccine is included among the routine childhood immunization. The vaccine can be taken orally (Sabin vaccine) or by an inactivated injection (Salk vaccine). In the early

Natrual Selection Informitive

2005-05-03T00:20:44-04:00

Natural Selection Table of Contents Intro – Page 3 Natural Selection and Charles Darwin – Page 4-5 Herbert Spencer, Social Darwinism – Page 5 Arguments against Natural Selection - Page 6 Conclusion – Page 7 Bibliography – Page 8 Evolution is one of the most controversial topics that has been argued about for centuries. Natural selection is one of the main supports for the evolution theory; it is defined as: “the process in nature by which, according to Darwin's theory of evolution, only the organisms best adapted to their environment tend to survive and transmit their genetic characteristics in increasing numbers to succeeding generations while those less adapted tend to be eliminated”(4). A similar term would be “survival of the fittest.” For centuries Evolutionists have argued between themselves about the evolution of the human race. There are many different theories of natural selection, the first of which was proposed by Charles Darwin. Some of the common theories within natural selection include discussion of Charles Darwin, Herbert Spencer and Social Darwinism. When discussing evolution, one must also look at the common debates of natural selection because of its controversy. Natural selection occurs when a certain cell mutates in a favorable way to either help it survive or make it more likely to procreate. This is one of the bases for Darwinism in that, without that adaptation to the environment, a species would just die off at the first change in weather patterns or from being extinguished by predators. While sailing on the H.S.S. Beagle, Darwin wrote about this topic and other observations in his book: “On the Origin of Species.” One such observation was made about the population of different animals in relationship to each other: “From experiments which I have tried, I have found that the visits of bees, if not indispensable, are at least highly beneficial to the fertilization of our clovers; but humble bees alone visit the common red clover (Trifolium pratense), as other bees cannot reach the nectar. Hence I have very little doubt, that if the whole genus of humble bees became extinct or very rare in England, the heartsease and red clover would become very rare, or wholly disappear. The number of humble-bees in any district depends in a great degree on the number of field-mice, which destroy their combs and nests; and Mr. H. Newman, who has long attended to the habits of humble-bees, believes

hybrid vehicles

2005-05-02T21:53:09-04:00

Hybrid Vehicles 1 Hybrid Vehicles: (Effects on the environment) Arthur Gil Environmental Investigations Professor April 4,2005 Hybrid Vehicles 2 As gasoline prices increase and the environment becomes unstable, people will begin to look for other modes to power their automobiles. One of those modes is know as hybrid power. A vehicle is considered a hybrid when it combines two or more sources of power. For example, a mo-ped (a motorized pedal bike) is a type of hybrid because it combines the power of a gasoline engines with the pedal power of the rider. Hybrid vehicles are an alternative being used to decrease the emissions of vehicles and to decrease the amount of fossil fuels being used. Hybrid vehicles also cost less to operate because of the decreased fuel usage. The gasoline-electric hybrid car is a cross between a gasoline-powered car and an electric car. Hybrid vehicles are all around us. Most of the locomotives we see pulling trains are diesel-electric hybrids. According too How Cars Work, Cities like Seattle have diesel-electric buses these can draw electric power from overhead wires or run on diesel when they are away from the wires. There are two kinds of hybrids. The parallel hybrid has a fuel tank which supplies gasoline to the engine. But it also has a set of batteries that supplies power to an electric motor. Both the engine and the electric motor can turn the transmission at the same time, and the transmission then turns the wheels. In a parallel hybrid, both the electric motor and the gas engine can provide propulsion power. The other type is a series hybrid. In the series hybrid the gasoline engine turns a generator, and the generator can either charge the batteries or power an Hybrid Vehicles 3 electric motor that drives the transmission, so the gasoline engine never directly powers the vehicle. Hybrid vehicles have all of the parts that a normal gasoline powered car would have, with a few extra parts such as the electric motor, generator, and batteries. The electric motor on a hybrid car is very sophisticated. Advanced electronics allow it to act as a motor as well as a generator. For example, when it needs to, it can draw energy from the batteries to accelerate the car. But acting as a generator, it can slow the car down and return energy to the batteries. The generator is similar to an electric motor, but it acts only

An Infinite Universe

2005-04-18T16:42:56-04:00

Now I am not a physics major nor do I claim to be extremely knowledgeable in physics. In fact, this essay (more of an extension to a theory) is only in the Physics category because I did not see any other category it could fit in. So here it is. I am assuming that Albert Einstein is a somewhat familiar name for you. You may even know of some or all of his theories. Such as those on relativity and the possibility that the universe is infinite. The latter is the theory I am extending. What I have come to realize is that, quite simply, IF the universe is infinite, then the possibilities are infinite. I am not speaking of how, if you apply yourself, anything is possible. I mean it in the literal fashion. ANYTHING is possible. Not only that, but if the universe truly is infinite, then EVERYTHING is not only possible but it is all happening. If you can imagine it, it is happening. All at the same time. Another theory about the universe is that there are an infinite number of 'realities.' Where every choice or event, no matter how small, branches the realities like a fork in the road. I do not believe this. What I believe is actually happening is that there is only one reality, but that everything that happens or has ever happened is in this universe... somewhere, and that it is all happening constantly. I am not theorizing that we 'move' from one reality to another. I believe that each reality is a completely separate entity with separate lines of events. There is another planet out there exactly like Earth in every detail except that on the planet, instead of typing 'the' before planet, I typed 'a' instead. Now imagine an infinite number of different worlds like that. Whether they are only minute differences or large ones that defy the laws of physics such as planets that are perfectly square. So even if it isn't possible, it IS happening on an infinite number of worlds. Imagine a planet with a purple atmosphere that is inhabited entirely by giant Bic ballpoint pens. Think it's insane? Sounds like it doesn't it? Think outside of what you have grown up learning and knowing was absolutely true. Now, think about all of the stars in the universe. You

Oxygen

2005-03-01T23:46:28-05:00

Atomic Number: 8 Atomic Radius: 66 pm Atomic Symbol: O Melting Point: -218.79 ºC Atomic Weight: 15.9994 Boiling Point: -182.95 ºC Electron Configuration: [He]2s22p4 Oxidation States: -2 History (Gr. oxys: acid, and genes: forming) For many centuries, workers occasionally realized air was composed of more than one component. The behavior of oxygen and nitrogen as components of air led to the advancement of the phlogiston theory of combustion, which captured the minds of chemists for a century. Oxygen was prepared by several workers, including Bayen and Borch, but they did not know how to collect it, did not study its properties, and did not recognize it as an elementary substance. Priestley is generally credited with its discovery, although Scheele also discovered it independently. Its atomic weight was used as a standard of comparison for each of the other elements until 1961 when the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry adopted carbon 12 as the new basis. Sources Oxygen is the third most abundant element found in the sun, and it plays a part in the carbon-nitrogen cycle, the process once thought to give the sun and stars their energy. Oxygen under excited conditions is responsible for the bright red and yellow-green colors of the Aurora Borealis. A gaseous element, oxygen forms 21% of the atmosphere by volume and is obtained by liquefaction and fractional distillation. The atmosphere of Mars contains about 0.15% oxygen. The element and its compounds make up 49.2%, by weight, of the earth's crust. About two thirds of the human body and nine tenths of water is oxygen. In the laboratory it can be prepared by the electrolysis of water or by heating potassium chlorate with manganese dioxide as a catalyst. Properties The gas is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. The liquid and solid forms are a pale blue color and are strongly paramagnetic. Forms Ozone (O3), a highly active compound, is formed by the action of an electrical discharge or ultraviolet light on oxygen. Ozone's presence in the atmosphere (amounting to the equivalent of a layer 3 mm thick under ordinary pressures and temperatures) helps prevent harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun from reaching the earth's surface. Pollutants in the atmosphere may have a detrimental effect on this ozone layer. Ozone is toxic and exposure should not exceed 0.2 mg/m# (8-hour time-weighted average - 40-hour

Stem Cells: Could this be the technology to cure cancer?

2005-02-28T16:52:00-05:00

Stem cells could be the greatest medical advance in history in the sense that most of our serious diseases can be cured. Stem cells have the potential to morph into other cell types in the body. Serving as a sort of repair system for the body, they can theoretically divide without limit to replenish other cells as long as the person is living. During mitosis, each new cell has the potential to either remain a stem cell or become another type of specialized cell, such as a muscle cell, or a red blood cell. (University of Utah, 2004; Viegas et al, 2003; Parson et al, 2004; Facts on File, 2004). There are three kinds of stem cells in the body: Totipotent stem cells, which have the ability to morph into any kind of cell in the body. These are found in embryos undergoing their early stages. Another type of stem cell is pluripotent stem cells which have the ability to morph into almost any kind of cell in the body. These are found in a blastocyst which is the result of the embryo after 7 days after fertilization (University of Utah, 2004). They are enriched with pluripotent stem cells, which are constantly morphing into other types of cells in order to become a fetus. The last type of stem cell is multipotent stem cells or adult stem cells. These are found in fetuses as well as full grown adults. These stem cells can transform into most kinds of specified cells in the body, but their choices are more limited (Viegas et al, 2003). So why are these stem cells so important and how do they help cure cancer? As of today, there is something called stem cell therapy which is used to treat diseases using stem cells (Munson et al 2002). The goal of stem cell therapy is to repair damaged tissue that cannot heal itself. This is accomplished by transplanting stem cells into the damaged area and directing them to grow into new healthy tissue (University of Utah, 2004). Some stem cell therapies used today are, adult stem cell transplants using bone marrow stem cells, peripheral blood stem cells and umbilical cord blood stem cells. Cell based therapy is just one way to cure cancer, not the only way. For example, let us take the treatment of leukemia, the cancer of white blood cells (WBC). In order to treat this disease,

SOMEONE IS THERE FOR YOU

2005-02-28T07:55:13-05:00

So many

Crushed Ice lab

2005-02-26T15:03:14-05:00

Downs Syndrome

2005-01-31T22:17:49-05:00

Downs Syndrome- A Chromosome Abnormality Aimee-Kate

ABNORMAL CLINICAL CONDITIONS

2005-01-14T09:46:48-05:00

Dated: 14th January 2005:Time: 3:14 P.M. I have investigated numerous methods of study of biochemical techniques on Abnormal Clinical Conditions of patients.The procedures

Nursing: Critical thinking ANA vs UOP

2004-12-13T03:23:08-05:00

Critical Thinking in Nursing Scott R. Heilmann Teaching and research are the foundation of universities, and nursing. How that research is conveyed to the learner is just as important as the research itself. This paper analyzes the different teaching styles and the benefits of incorporating critical thinking into the education system. The byproduct of such an education is a nurse who will be able to project ideas into the patient care equation. Some of the boundaries preventing critical thinking in the workplace are the education system that prevents the future nurse from critically thinking early on. Students are told from a young age that certain knowledge is absolute. It is also widely believed that knowledge is power. Students learn to listen to the teacher. For example, the information in the lecture will be on the test. This information is implied to be correct, regardless of other possibilities. To counter the information expressed by the teacher could ultimately lead to a lower grade. Critical thinking on the other hand, is the ability to think outside the box. It is necessary to not only answer every question, but to question every answer. How one goes about teaching a post-modern theory is still up for debate. There lies a thin line in between seeming to make suggestions to follow, and necessary information. However, the most important lesson one can learn while critically thinking is that power is perceived; not innate. That lesson will ultimately translate in the nurse’s ability to confront doctors, other medical personal, families, and administrators ending with the patients best interest at the helm. Nursing as a profession is not immune to that traditional one way of concrete thinking. The doctor gives an order. The nurse follows through completing the order by passing on the medication the patient must take. Most things seem to be black or white, with a direct cause and effect relationship. In an article “A philosophy underlying excellence in research”, discusses the impact of maintaining a traditional education system on nurses. The article also discusses the consequences regarding changes towards critical thinking. To fully understand the concepts discussed the article we must first look at our roots of knowledge. Paradigms of knowledge will allow us to better understand how we think and how we view learning. Schools and professors educate

Avogadros Number

2004-11-28T23:21:31-05:00

Avogadros number is the number 6.0221367 x 10^23, commonly rounded to just three significant digits: 6.02 x 10^23, and is the number of representative particles in a mole. Avogadro’s number is commonly used to compute the quantities of substances involved in chemical reactions, called stoichiometry, and is one of the most important and versatile components of modern chemistry. Avogadro’s number is named after the Italian physicist Amadeo Avogadro. Avogadro’s number first came about when Amadeo Avogadro proposed Avogadro’s law in 1811. Avogadro’s law states that under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain an equal amount of molecules. The specific number of molecules in one gram-mole of a substance is the value 6.02 x 10^23. For example, the molecular weight of oxygen is 32, so one gram-mole of oxygen has a mass of 32 grams and contains 6.02 x 10^23 molecules (Blauch). Avogadro’s number also deals with the mole. The mole is a SI unit used to measure the amount of a substance, and is equal to Avogadro’s number. It is equal to the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12. A mole of any substance contains 6.022127 x 10^23 representative particles. A representative particle is any type of particle, such as atoms, molecules, formula units, electrons or ions, and 1 mole of any substance always contains the same number of molecules. Avogadro’s number relates the mass of a mole of a substance to the mass of a single molecule. For example, to find the mass of one molecule of H2O, you would use the formula: ( Mass ) / (Avogadro’s number ) Since the molecular mass of H2O is 18, then to formula would be: ( 18g ) / ( 6.02 x 10^23 ) By using this formula you discover that the mass of one molecule 2.99 x 10^-23 grams (Dickson 106). A major use of the mole is stoichiometry. The word ‘stoichiometry’ derives from two Greek words: stoicheion (meaning "element") and metron (meaning "measure"). Stoichiometry deals with calculations of the masses of reactants and products in a chemical reaction, and is a very mathematical part of chemistry. You can use stoichiometry

Establishing the role of sodium chloride in amylase

2004-11-20T05:01:34-05:00

Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel for Internal Combustion Engines

2004-11-16T19:24:59-05:00

Hard to believe that the simplest atom in the universe is used in the making of the most destructive weapon known to man isn’t it? Well so is the fact that it will soon (we hope) become the replacement for petroleum-based fuels, and just about every other form of fuel too. One electron orbiting one proton is all that hydrogen is, and it is mankind’s future. It is easy to manufacture, (although the government says otherwise,) safe and easy to store, and has only one by-product…water. The way that most hydrogen is made today is by electrolysis. Electrolysis is the reaction to an electrical current being sent through water from one electrode to the other. To do this, the electrical current must be at least 1.23 volts. When the current interacts with the water it splits the molecules into their base atoms, which are hydrogen and oxygen. There are several ways to collect the gas, but that is not important. Now you have hydrogen gas! Well, YOU probably don’t have hydrogen gas, but that’s how it’s made. There are many ways to extract hydrogen, but only a few are economically efficient. Solar panels, wind power, hydroelectric, geothermal, and several other sources are economically more efficient than burning petroleum or coal to extract hydrogen. By burning coal or petroleum to extract hydrogen, you create hydrogen as a storage medium, NOT an energy source. Only by using renewable sources such as solar and hydroelectric power, can hydrogen be considered an energy source. In all extraction techniques, energy is required to make the hydrogen. If the government allotted more funding, then we could be driving cars that produce water instead of carbon monoxide. Most electrolysis devices using solar power convert water into hydrogen and oxygen with an efficiency of 4-6 percent, which isn’t very efficient. The devices would convert approximately 4-6 percent of the sunlight into hydrogen. But in 2000, a team of German, Israeli, and Japanese scientists finished work on a device that boosted efficiency to 18.3%. Theoretically, 40% or higher efficiency CAN be achieved. But the current estimates for maximum efficiency are staying around 31%. With the 18.3% efficiency, commercial production is feasible. This efficiency is only concerned with the extraction procedure. Hydrogen gas efficiency with internal combustion engines is near 90% while gasoline is coughing along at 25%. Hydrogen already has petroleum beat and it’s only in its infancy. Unfortunately

CAUGHT IN THE WEB

2004-11-12T06:19:05-05:00

Two Main Radioisotopes in Medicine

2004-11-10T02:00:51-05:00

Cataract Essay

2004-11-09T19:20:36-05:00

History of the atomic bomb

2004-10-05T23:46:31-04:00

John Whitaker Prof. Angela Burton September 25, 2004 Research Paper History of the Atom Bomb The atom bomb is one of history’s greatest and most feared accomplishments. The sheer power and strength of the weapon is something that is awe-inspiring, yet something to strike fear into the hearts of everyone who sees one explode. This amazing feat of human society came after many long years of difficult testing and retesting different theories. The invention of the atom or hydrogen bomb, as it is known, is one of the most momentous inventions that human kind has seen thus far in its history. It would be logical to assume that the discovery of fission preceded the invention of the atomic bomb. It would be normal also to expect that no single individual could really claim to be "the inventor", since the possibility sprang naturally from a physical process, and required the efforts of many thousands to bring it into existence. But in this case, this assumption is not correct. In the case of the atomic bomb there is clearly one man who is the originator of the idea. He was also the instigator of the project that led ultimately to the successful construction of the atomic bomb, and was a principal investigator in the early R&D both before and after the founding of the atomic bomb project - making a number of the key discoveries himself. By any normal standard this man is the inventor of the atomic bomb. This man is Leo Szilard. On September 12, 1932, within seven months of the discovery of the neutron, and more than six years before the discovery of fission, Leo Szilard conceived of the possibility of a controlled release of atomic power through a multiplying neutron chain reaction, and also realized that if such a reaction could be found, then a bomb could be built using it. On July 4, 1934 Leo Szilard filed a patent application for the atomic bomb. In his application, Szilard described not only the basic concept of neutron chain reactions and the key concept of the critical mass. The patent was awarded to him - making Leo Szilard the legally recognized inventor of the atomic bomb. (Sublet) With the invention, or rather the thought of creation, for an atom bomb before fission was discovered sparked many peoples attention. A rush for the discovery of fission and other topics associated with it created many different experiments that

History of the atomic bomb

2004-10-05T23:46:23-04:00

The Branch Davidian Cult

2004-08-17T11:29:35-04:00

The Branch Davidian Cult, which was until its demise headed by Warren Jeffs, had over 6000 members at its peak. These 6000 members lived in sister cities of Hildale and Colorado City in the barren US state of Utah. The cult in which control is the key is now considered by many to be closer to a terrorist organisation. The Branch Dividians had originated in the Seventh-day Adventist church where they in turn began to follow a “Millerite” which in short is a movement that believes the Bible sets out a date for the end of the world. The Branch Davidians began mainly as The Davidian Seventh-Day Adventists headed by self proclaimed prophet, Victor Houteff, after his death his wife Florence took over leadership, proclaiming that the world would end in 1959. When the world kept on going, the Davidians dispersed although a number reformed under the leadership of Ben Roden, the new group named themselves the Branch Davidians. After Ben Rodden’s death in 1978, his wife Lois took over the running of the organisation and made the most famous of all the cult’s proclamations, that the Holy Spirit was female and brought the female aspect into the Trinity. Vernon Hall, later David Koresh, joined the Branch Davidians in 1981 and in 1983 he has his first vision from God. In 1990, after much friction between himself and other members, Hall became the leader of the Branch Davidians. On 28 February 1993 a raid on the Branch Davidian compound at Waco, Texas is beaten back by the Davidians. On 19th April another raid occurs. During the fire fight the compound explodes into flames, killing eighty-six people, including seventeen children. Vernon Howell (David Koresh) also dies in the flames. There are only nine survivors: Renos Avreem, Jaime Castillo, Graeme Craddock, Misty Ferguson, Derrick Lovelock, Ruth Ottman-Riddle, David Thibodeaux, Marjorie Thomas and Clive Doyle. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms agents initiated the raid and other agencies soon joined the long stand off. The details become very sketchy at this time, with the cult proclaiming that they won the initial skirmishes while the agencies say that they severely damaged the cult members during these incidents. This is the same with the details of how the building was set on fire, the cult members say that they government agents light the building on fire

globalization

2004-07-21T07:57:42-04:00

People all over the world become closer than ever before. Goods and services that appear in a country will be immediately promoted in the others. International transfer and communication are more common. For describing this present time, they use the term: THE ERA OF GLOBALIZATION. This phenomenon affects the economic business and exerts a wide influence on society at that. The growth of the developing countries is the main cause of globalization and it brings both opportunities and disadvantages to them. Globalization is a process and this process makes developments in these countries. First of all is the independence of each of developing countries. The development in industry, economy, culture and polity gives solutions to social problems. The most serious problem of all of the governments in the world is unemployment, which leads to poverty, social crime, illiteracy, can be easily clenched as most of the labour in developing countries are very cheap so the multinational companies always employ the worker in host countries. Moreover when the multinational companies cooperate with a country, they also bring their religion, culture, and life style. Meeting them, the people in the poor country increase their standard of living and get acquainted with new civilization. Furthermore, globalization also creates an aggressive competition in industry. For the progression of industrialization, less developing countries cooperate with more developing countries to get new technology or instruct employees to know some modern methods. With these advantages, governments have a basic background to build their country and escape from the Third World. On the other hand, the spread of globalization makes many scientists warn us about its harms. As has been noted, the cooperation between developing countries and developed countries opens a new window for the improvement of economy of each country; however, the advancement of economy always goes with the exploitation of resource. In addition, the multinational companies always have a tendency to appropriate the smaller companies in host countries. By lowing their prices, increasing money in advertising so the smaller ones cannot compete with the bigger ones and that will lead them to the bankruptcy. A disadvantage could be mentioned is environment pollution. The multinational companies do not have to pay some kinds of tax such as: water, electricity, etc. As the result, the governments do not have enough money to deal with pollution problems. Therefore, globalization causes a lot of risk to the countries in the Third World

Almonds

2004-07-08T09:45:57-04:00

ALMONDS A seed of the fruit of the almond tree bearing fragrant pink and white flowers is what we know as Almond nut. Make your day nice all by yourself by adding some almond butter to a breakfast shake to boost its taste and protein content. Because of their mild flavor, almonds are used both as a garnish and as an ingredient in a variety of

When is government use of spyware justified and what are the social and ethical issues?

2004-06-02T10:54:42-04:00

Presentation of the Issue Governments employ spyware to track potential criminals and suspected terrorists, specifically Osama bin Laden and Al’Qaida after the event of September 11, 2001 at New York and the Pentagon. It can happen however that these suspected criminals turn out to be innocent civilians. If this turns out to be the case, the government will have been invading certain individuals’ privacy for a little or no reason. Government officials monitor civilians at work and at home without them knowing . It was recently estimated in Great Britain that the average inhabitant of London would be filmed on Close Circuit Television cameras (CCTV) as often as 300 times a day . Telephone calls can be tapped, mobile phones traced, e-mails can be read and even one’s keystrokes on a PC can be monitored, as is often the case when criminal justice is involved. Human rights activists debate the fact that the government’s use of Spyware is excessive and goes against the right to privacy. Given the tragic events of 9-11, is this ‘Big Brother’ approach of modern government justified or have governments become excessive in their surveillance? IT background of the issue There are two types of spyware: Hardware includes Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) cameras, hidden microphones, GPS satellites, keyloggers, telephone taps, and bug tracers. CCTV cameras are used for monitoring jobs within a certain district and provide visual footage of the occurrences. Microphones are similar, but provide audio footage. Both devices provide digital feedback because it is more efficient to transmit and to record than analogous footage. Software key loggers are a stealth software product that records every keystroke on a keyboard of a computer. They can be installed on machines by sending them as an e-mail attachment and they are mostly undetectable to anti-virus programs, but these are being modified to intercept spyware programs as well. The hardware version of key loggers are often mistaken for an obligatory part of the hardware and so are ignored because they either look like a part of a keyboard or are made to look like normal keyboards . Spyware by the name of ‘Real Time Spy’ is capable of monitoring subjects as they are online, which is known as real-time spyware, and then there is also spyware that allows the user to monitor all e-mail traffic on the subject’s machine , which is known as ‘WebMail Spy’. Another limited form of key

CREATING A BETTER CIVILIZATION

2004-05-16T22:27:45-04:00

A fight breaks out between two sixth grade boys during lunch. One of the boys pulls out a gun from his back pocket and starts to shoot into the crowd surrounding him. Four children and one teacher fall dead. Who is to blame for this awful outcome? The parents who have brought the child into this world, or the school where he spends most of his days? This is a common issue in today’s society. Many of us feel that society should tend to our children, and that all of us are equally to blame for a child that turns to violence. But shouldn’t the parents take the responsibility for their children’s behavior? In my opinion they should take full responsibility for how their children behave. There are many things a parent can do to raise respectable children, eliminate child abuse, educate themselves to benefit their children, reduce their children’s stress, become a good role model, and teach their children respected values of society. One factor under the control of parents contributing to violent behavior in children is child abuse. There is no doubt that early child abuse and neglect place one at increased risk for adult criminal behavior. In a study at Indiana University they found that 26% of child abuse and neglect victims became juvenile offenders and 17% were arrested for violent crimes (Verny, 1997). Education given to parents before their children are born and through out their child’s lives would greatly reduce these numbers and stop the cycle of violence. It is the parent’s responsibility to teach their children positive social values. There are many things that educated parents can do also to help their children become more well-rounded and healthy individuals. Most parents today work full time, leaving less time for them to spend with their children. This however should not stop those parents from teaching their children how to become ethical, responsible people. America’s future depends on our raising children who will become “soulful citizens, people who have values and beliefs that society approves of”, with the skills, confidence, and commitment to make a difference in the world. (Loeb, 1999). From the moment of conception there are many things a parent can do to influence their children, parents can show them happiness, sharing, respect and how to make healthy friends.

Genetic Disorder: Tay-Sachs Disease

2004-05-07T20:56:47-04:00

My name is Put your name.. and I am a carrier of Tay-Sachs Disease; my partner is also a carrier of this disease and our child is affected with Tay-Sachs Disease. Tay-Sachs Disease is a recessive genetic disorder which contains harmful quantities of fatty substances called Ganglioside GM2 which harms the nerve cells in the brain. This disease mostly affect infants. The only way for a baby to be affected with this disease is when both of the parents is a carrier of this disease. There is a good 25% chance that the child with have this disease. An affected baby appears normal at birth and the first couple of months, but when the child is six months old, it begins to get the symptoms and they will even get noticeable cherry-red spots in the back of their eyes. When my child was six months old, I began to notice that he didn’t really move a whole lot, and that he had cherry-red spots on the back of his eyes. So I took him to the doctors and they told me that he has the disease called Tay-Sachs Disease. At first, I did not know what Tay-Sachs disease was until he told me a little bit about it and gave me a brochure on it. But, the part that upset me the most about this disease is that my partner and I were carriers of this disease and we gave it to him. After I learned more about this disease, I learned that there is no cure or treatment for this disease. The only thing that we could do was to make him as comfortable as possible. When he was about 2 years old he started to go blind, deaf, unable to grasp objects, he was unaware of his surroundings, he stopped smiling, couldn’t swallow and he became paralyzed. He got so bad that we could not take care of him anymore. We had to take him to National Tay-Sachs and Allied Diseases Association in Massachusetts. That was the only organization that would even take him. I felted so bad taking him there; I felt like a horrible parent that could even take care of her own child; having other people taking care of my child for me. Everyday, I would go down to that place and watch my child sit in a wheelchair and stare out the window, not moving,

Artificial Intelligence

2004-04-23T22:39:55-04:00

2 Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a term that in its broadest sense would indicate the ability of an artifact to perform the same kind of functions that characterize human thought (Encarta). Is artificial intelligence used in companies and everyday people? Also how does A.I. help you? Where is A.I. headed? Are a few questions I will answer for you. Artificial Intelligence is a fairly new subject. “The term ‘Artificial Intelligence’ was first coined in 1956 by an influential figure in the field, John McCarthy.”(BBCI). McCarthy brought together researchers interested in neural networks and the study of intelligence and was known for “laying the groundwork for the future of A.I. research.”(BBCI). As the years pasted A.I. has become more and more a reality. In the 1997, “in a landmark match, the chess system Deep Blue defeated Gary Kasparov, the world’s human chess champion for the previous twelve years.”(Leake, 2002). Although this was a great achievement it is much more difficult to make a computer do things that we take for granite like “seeing is not just a matter of recognizing patters in visual images, but involves making sense of the environment, including understanding all the many ways it can help or hinder us. Similarly, the ability to understand and use a natural language, like English, or Urdu, turned out to be far more

Investigative Process

2004-04-14T21:50:04-04:00

Mental Health: A Look Into Anxiety Disorders Anxiety and fear are often thought of as the same thing, but are actually somewhat different. Fear is thought of as a response to the presence or imminence of danger. Anxiety, on the other hand, can be looked at as a response that was created through learning or life experiences. Anxiety disorders are very common and may eventually turn every day tasks into unbearable and overwhelming activities. General symptoms of anxiety disorders can include the feeling of panic, uncontrollably obsessive thoughts, sweating or chills, and muscle tension, among others. If untreated, people with anxiety disorders tend to get progressively worse. Anxiety disorders consist of panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia), phobias (social phobia, agoraphobia, and specific phobia), obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder. The anxiety disorders are also the most common, or frequently occurring, mental disorders. Panic disorders may seem like normal occurrences, but they can occur at inappropriate times and be considered, in some cases, extreme. Mainly, people with panic disorders experience a phenomenon called panic attacks. Key symptoms in people with panic attacks include the fear of losing control, a pounding heart, nausea, dizziness, feelings of unreality, numbness, and even shortness of breath, triggered by a stressful situation. The trigger causing panic attacks differs, depending on the person. Many people who have experienced panic attacks compare the feeling to a heart attack and report intense feelings of fear, along with the urge to escape from their location. Panic attacks can also leave a person feeling extremely anxious, constantly awaiting the next attack to occur, and often reach their peak within 10 minutes or less. There are three types of panic attacks; unexpected, situationally bound, and situationally predisposed. Unexpected attacks have no specific trigger, occurring without notice. Situationally bound panic attacks, on the other hand, take place when a person is exposed or has thoughts about being exposed to a certain trigger. For instance, exposing a person, or them just them thinking about being exposed to something they fear can, in turn, cause a situationally bound panic attack. Situationally predisposed attacks commonly occur when someone is exposed to a trigger but does not necessarily mean that every time exposed, an attack will occur. A person who is scared of flying doesn’t necessarily get scared every time they are on a plane, therefore making this a situationally predisposed panic attack. Also, this

autism and the family

2004-03-25T23:00:03-04:00

Home Therapy and Autism 2 One of the most common developmental disabilities affects two out of every ten thousand children and appears before the age of three (Encarta, 2000). The disorder is autism. It is a disorder that severely impairs development of a person’s ability to communicate, interact with other people, and maintain normal contact with the outside world. Autism is often referred to as a spectrum disorder, a disorder in which symptoms can occur in any combination and with varying degrees of severity (Encarta, 2000). Symptoms of autism usually begin during infancy. They may stiffen or go limp when picked up by parents rather than clinging up to them. Autistic infants often show little or no interest in other people and lack typical social behaviors. Another affect of autism is difficulty with language. Some never learn to speak or develop very limited speech. Over the past thirty years major advances have been made in the education and treatment of autistic individuals. While it is important for patients to receive outside therapy it is also critical that the families get involved and continue the therapy at home. In this paper we will look at not only at the types of home therapy programs, but also the effectiveness of these programs on the mental and physical limitations that autism puts on a child compared to outside therapies. Children with autism need both physical and behavioral treatment programs. Not much research has been done on what parents can do to improve the limitations that autism cause and the research done was mainly on behavioral treatment, so that is what the focus will be on. This paper will focus Home Therapy and Autism 3 on the social communication, emotional regulation, and IQ that a home based behavioral therapy program can improve. “It is well documented that positive long-term outcomes for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are strongly correlated with the achievement of communicative competence” (Sheinkopf and Siegel, 1998). Two studies tried to focus on this aspect of autism. A controlled trail conducted in the United Kingdom on parent training intervention by Drew et al. focused specifically on improving the communication of pre-school children with autism, especially non-verbal social communicative skills. This study used the clinical interviews and the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) to assess social interaction, non-verbal social communication abilities. Twenty

Determining pH of identical strong and weak solutions

2004-03-16T04:30:00-04:00

Experiment: Determining pH of identical strong and weak solutions Date: 31/10/03 Aim: Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the pH of identical concentrations of strong and weak acids. Equipment: · Deionised water (H2O) · Tartaric Acid (C4H6O6) · Citric Acid (C6H8O7) · Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) · Acetic Acid (CH3COOH) · Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) · Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) · Tap Water (H2O) · Nitric Acid (HNO3) · Probe · Ferric chloride (FeCl3) · Wash bottle · Sodium Chloride in tap water (NaCl) · Beakers · Sodium Chloride in deionised water (NaCl) · Data logger Method: 1) Make sure there is an equal molarity of each substance. In this case 0.1 moles/litre. Therefore there are 0.1 moles of each substance in solution. 2) Place each of the substances in a beaker. 3) Calibrate the data logger by using buffer zones of pH 4 and 10. 4) Place the probe into one beaker and click the start button on the data logger. Record the pH level of the substance. 5) Remove the probe and wash thoroughly using the wash bottle. 6) Repeat for all the other substances and record their pH’s. 7) Determine which solutions are strong and which are weak. Results: Substance pH Acidic, Basic or Neutral Strong or Weak Citric Acid (C6H8O7) 2.4 Acidic Weak Acetic Acid (CH3COOH) 3.0 Acidic Weak Tartaric Acid (C4H6O6) 2.3 Acidic Weak Nitric Acid (HNO3) 1.5 Acidic Strong Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) 1.5 Acidic Strong Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) 1.4 Acidic Strong Ferric chloride (FeCl3) 1.5 Acidic Strong Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) 7.0 Neutral - Sodium Chloride in deionised water (NaCl) 5.6 Acidic Very Weak Sodium Chloride in tap water (NaCl) 7.2 Neutral - Deionised water (H2O) 6.0 Neutral - Tap Water (H2O) 7.0 Neutral - Discussion: By observing our results it can be seen that even though all solutions have the same concentration they can still be strong or week. It can be seen that all organic acids eg. Acetic acid, Citric acid and Tartaric acid are all weak acids whereas all inorganic acids such as Sulfuric acid, Nitric acid and Hydrochloric acids were strong. It was also discovered that ionic molecules could be acidic eg. Ferric Chloride. In the past it has been said that all ionic substances tend to be more neutral than acidic or basic. This has all been changed now and we have the Brønsted Lowry concept. With the Brønsted-Lowry concept we usually refer to a hydrogen ion as a proton. That is because a proton is all that is left when a hydrogen atom loses an electron to become an ion. Brønsted and Lowry independently came up with the idea that an acid is an acid because it provides or donates a proton to something else. When an acid reacts, the proton is transferred from one chemical to another. Note that in order for an acid to act like an acid, there needs to be something for it to react with. There needs to be something to take

Cloning

2004-02-12T12:04:02-05:00

Rate of Reaction

2004-01-12T00:59:54-05:00

Rate of Reaction December 17, 2003 Rate of Reaction-Report The purpose of this lab was to find the rate of reaction. I watched to see how fast Alka-Seltzer would react with different liquids. I changed the type of liquid from water to vinegar for some of the experiments. I also used one tablet that was solid and one that I had crushed up to see the differences. I changed the temperature with each new experiment, except when I was comparing and contrasting solid to ground up tablets. I always used the same amount of liquid also. The tablet that was ground up always dissolved quicker than the solid tablet in the same temperature. This is because of molecular collisions. The solid tablet could only make contact with the liquid on the surface, causing the reaction to always occur from the outside to the inside, which made the reaction take longer. The ground up tablet could make contact with the liquid all through the powder, causing more molecular collisions in the same amount of time. I also noticed the hotter the liquid was the faster the reaction time was. This is because there is more energy in the water and the molecules are colliding faster causing the reaction to speed up. From my results I predicted that a solid tablet, in water, would react in 73.9 seconds at 13°C. I also predicted that a ground up tablet would react in 43.3 seconds at 13°C. I made my predictions by looking at the average reaction time from my labs, and calculating the average reaction speed. The solid tablets reaction speed was about 3.61 seconds per degree. While the ground up tablets reaction speed was about 1.67 seconds per degree. After I found the speed of the reaction, I multiplied the average reaction speed by the temperature I was trying to predict. In my results both the solid and the ground up tablets dissolved faster in water than in vinegar. I personally thought that the tablets would actually dissolve faster in vinegar.Type of Liquid Amount of Liquid(mL) Temperature of Liquid (°C) Consistency of Tablet Time of

The Science of Interpreting a Ghost

2003-12-17T07:27:53-05:00

Ghost is something that some believe and some won't. But still most of them get frighten to some extend, when they watch terrific horror films. Perhaps it is due to the terrific sounds or special effects that imposes ones mind. But there is a specific science that has the ability to explain the concepts of the spirits or ghosts called Adhyathma (A study centered around the soul)in the Ancient Indian script. According to the teachings of the ancient scripture Bhagavad Gita, the brain (and the body in general) is only a mechanical device used by the spirit soul (the actual self). It is described that just as a passenger rides in a chariot, in the same way the spirit soul is riding in this vehicle of the body. The scriptures state that one who commits suicide will have to remain as a ghost for the period of time that one's body was supposed to exist. A ghost is nothing but a person with no physical body. According to the sankhya system, our body is made up of two coverings, the sukshma-sharira (subtle body) and the sthula-sharira (gross body). The gross body is made up of the panca-bhutas (earth, water, fire, air and ether), and the subtle body is made up of the mind (manas), intelligence (buddhi) and identification (ahankara). It is the subtle body which accompanies the soul into the next body at the time of death. The gross physical body has a particular duration of existence based on one's prarabdha karma(results of the deeds of his previous incarnation).When one commits suicide, one brings one's physical body to an end prior to it having completed it's allotted time. One's next body is prepared in the akasha (ether), ready to manifest at the end of one's allotted time (the normal death of one's physical body). Thus if one was supposed to live for 100 years, one's next body will be waiting for you after that 100 years. If for some reason one were to commit suicide at the age of 50, then one's next body will not be ready, and one will remain in an ethereal state until the balance 50 years of existence pass. This state of existing as a ghost is a great suffering for the individual, as they lack the senses through which to act. The desires to act

Issues in Personality Theory (an opinion essay)

2003-12-14T00:31:14-05:00

Free will means that one has control of themselves and their own destiny; determinism would argue that everything that happens is dictated by what happened in the past, and that one does not have the freedom to choose and control their fate due to other controlling factors. I believe that determinism is the deciding factor in fate and destiny. An individual may be able to sontrol their destiny to some extent by consciously working toward a specific life goal or desired result, however it is impossible for someone to control every antagonistic factor around them. As sometime or another, everything will be altered by a disruptive uncontrollable force. However, one could also argue that those disruptive forces are not antagonists but are actually a major part of our destiny, and that they are redirecting and guiding us toward our predestined life events and ends. Hence, because of the many uncontrollable factors in life, free will is ultimately useless. As for the idea of everything being dictated by what happened in the past, this is questionable. It has been said that everything and individual does, whether it is good or bad, will eventually be returned to them. There is no proof of this actually occurring; it is merely an assumption made based on something that may be nothing more than pure coinsidence. In the Nature v. Nurture issue, the nature side states that character and intelligence are largely inherited and that certain ideas are inborn, whereas the nurture side of the debate argues that our human traits develop through experience. In my opinion, both nature and nurture contribute to our overall personality and intelligence. It is true that certain traits are inherited from out parents; this has been proven in the twin and adoption studies. An adopted child, even after never meeting their biological parents, will eventually manifest certain traits of their natural parents. Likewise, twins that have been separated at birth who are reunited in adulthood will often have many astonishing similarities. However, while some of our personality traits and intelligence are inherited from our parents, the nurture we experience from conception and our personal life experiences play key roles in what make our individual personalities. Experience is perhaps the greatest teacher, and it can completely make or change

Welcome To the World of Ports

2003-12-12T07:15:49-05:00

Welcome To the World of Ports In the modern technological world today, society has expanded and increased our knowledge about computers and the way they function. A computer is much more complex than just chips and gadgets. A computer is made up of several mechanics and ports that connect

Freud's Psychoanalytical Theory

2003-12-12T07:06:19-05:00

Bandura helped reshape the theoretical landscape of behaviorism and personality by creating his own theory, the social learning theory. Bandura agrees with the fundamental thrust of behaviorism that personality is largely shaped through learning. However, he contends that conditioning is not a mechanical process in which people are passive participants. Bandura’s foremost theoretical contribution has been his description of observational learning, which occurs when an organism’s responding, is influenced by the observation of others. Bandura maintains that people’s characteristics patterns of behavior are shaped by the models that they are exposed to. In observational learning, a model is a person whose behavior is observed by another. According to social learning theory, models have a great impact on personality development. Children learn to be assertive, conscientious, self-sufficient, and dependable and so on. Bandura discusses how a variety of personal factors (aspects of personality) govern behavior. The factor he has emphasized the most in recent years is self-efficacy, which refers to one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes. He claims that when self-efficacy is high, people feel

A Critical Assessment of Hypnosis

2003-11-30T23:30:29-05:00

In the journal article entitled, “The Use of Hypnosis to Help an Anxious Student with a Social Communication Disorder to Attend School” I will elucidate how a student with a social communication disorder was treated by use of hypnosis. I will first explain what hypnosis is and two common types of hypnosis. “Hypnosis is a procedure done by the therapist that suggests to the subject that he or she experiences changes in perception, thoughts, behaviors and feelings” (Bryon 126). Hypnosis is not a new topic to the general population, but is well acknowledged. Hypnosis is not for everyone, because some people can overcome their problems and do not need to use hypnosis. One way someone can identify their problem is to monitor their physical symptoms, like increasing blood pressure, sweating, unable to stand up or speak, and unable to remain attentive. Stress and phobias also contribute to having disorders (Byron 125). Many researchers have come to the conclusion that they can use hypnosis as an apparatus for a wide list of problems. One way is suggesting how the subject should behave or react. There are two ways hypnosis can be induced. In one way hypnosis is induced by oneself, and the other is done by someone else, usually a professional therapist. In order for hypnosis to work one must be in a relaxed state, and must desire to be hypnotized. The client, named J, is a student whose age is 15 (Byron 126) J is able to think academically, but unable to deal with social communication, either in entering a classroom or participating in the classroom discussions. J has had a history of anxiety problems from little on. From age 7 up to 12 J’s focus was not strong, and his rude behavior was apparent in his classes. As the years proceed on, situation only becomes worse because stress and tension are higher. This can create serious barriers that some people can not handle, because of all the challenging activities that need to be done. This is apparent in J since he will not attend classes anymore, because he is too frightened of what people might think of him though his actions. When J reached the stage of being so afraid of even being out in the community, his counselor at his school helped him get in to

sleep apnea

2003-11-21T18:49:41-05:00

Sleep Apnea Sleep is essential to life; it is one of several components, including food and water, which keep the living alive. However, a significant percentage of the human population has considerable difficulty reaching and maintaining Stage IV within their sleeping patterns, the stage that allows the mind and body to fall into a deep and restorative sleep, otherwise known as REM sleep. At the core of this difficulty is a condition known as obstructive sleep apnea, a "serious, potentially life-threatening condition that is far more common than generally understood" (Sleep Apnea). Indeed, obstructive sleep apnea can be very dangerous if it is not properly detected and treated. What is Sleep Apnea? Research findings indicate that nearly eighteen million Americans suffer with the dangerous and exhausting effects of sleep apnea, in which "certain mechanical and structural problems in the airway cause the interruptions in breathing during sleep" (Sleep Apnea). It is important for the student to know that telltale signs of a potential problem include loud snoring, obesity, high blood pressure and a physical blockage of the nose, throat or upper airway. Its prevalence appears to be genetic to some degree; however, its appearance in overweight patients also indicates that its composition is rooted in both genetics and environment. Sleep apnea occurs in two separate modes: central and obstructive, with central sleep apnea being less common between the two. The brain fails to send proper signals to the breathing muscles as a means by which to commence respirations during sleep in central sleep apnea. Obstructive sleep apnea, on the other hand, is significantly more Common, transpiring at the point when air is obstructed from flowing into or out of the nose or mouth, "characterized by repetitive episodes of upper airway obstruction that occur during sleep, usually associated with a reduction in blood oxygen saturation" (Obstructive Sleep Apnea). It is important for the student to know that an apneic event may take place up to twenty or thirty times per hour - sometimes even more - followed by a noted episode of snoring. Important to note is the fact that snoring, in and of itself, is not indicative of sleep apnea; rather, it is but one telltale symptom (Sleep Apnea). Sleep apnea may occur during the inherent relaxation associated with sleep, when the tongue and throat muscles soften and inevitably block the airway. This relaxation goes even further when the soft palate muscles and

Maternal de-adaption and Alexithymia

2002-12-07T13:00:00-05:00

According to Jan Abrams (1996), "In the successful version of the mother-child relationship, 'the mother begins to emerge from her state of primary maternal preoccupation [towards her infant] and remembers who she is in terms of being an independent individual in the world. She is recovering, both physically and emotionally, from the last important stages of pregnancy, giving birth, and being merged in identification with her infant's absolute dependence on her. The infant requires his mother to de-adapt, which is part and parcel of her remembering herself. This "failure" on the mother's part introduces the "reality principle" to the child and is part of the disillusioning process, related to weaning. By "failing" in this way, the mother, unknowingly, allows the infant to feel and experience his needs. This "failure" contributes to his developing sense of self -- a self that is Me and separate from his mother." [italics mine] (a) If, however, the mother cannot gradually "fail" in the way Abrams describes (allowing the infant's affective life to become self-regulated) then the infant's drive to self realization of these potentials is impeded. Donald Winnicott (1960) words the child's dilemma in the following way: …the infant who has begun to become separate from the mother has no means of gaining control of all the good things that are going on. The creative gesture, the cry, the protest, all the little signs that are supposed to produce what the mother does, all these things are missing, because the mother has already met the need just as if the infant were still merged with her and she with the infant. In this way the mother, by being a seemingly good mother, does something worse that castrate the infant. The latter is left with two alternatives: either being in a permanent state of regression and of being merged with the mother. We see therefore that in infancy and in the management of infants there is a very subtle distinction between the mother's understanding of her infant's need based on empathy, and her change over to an understanding based on something in the infant or small child that indicates need. (a)

Transitional objects:

'Part of the de-adaption process involves facilitating the child's use of transitional objects to symbolize inner object relations and their affective dynamics. In the case of the mother who is reluctant to de-adapt from her maternal providence; 'It has been observed also that some mothers interfere

Newton vs. Leibniz

2002-12-05T13:00:00-05:00

After the introduction of algebra in the sixteenth century, mathematical discoveries flooded Europe. One of the most important being the fundamentals of “the calculus,”-“a means for calculating the way quantities vary with each other, rather than just the quantities themselves.”2 Like most discoveries, calculus was the combination of centuries of work rather than an instant discovery. Brilliant mathematicians all over the world contributed to its development, but the two most well known pioneers of calculus are Sir Isaac Newton and Baron Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Although now the credit is given to both men, there was a time when the debate over which of them truly deserved the recognition was of huge controversy. Isaac Newton was born in the manor house of Hamlet of Woolsthorpe in the city of Lincolnshire on December 25th, 1642. His father, a yeoman farmer died shortly before he was born. His mother Hannah Ayscough was remarried to Reverend Barnabus Smith three years after Newton’s birth and he was sent to live with his Grandmother. Newton lived very well off as a young boy, never having to suffer poverty. As a child Newton was not robust and was forced to give up the rough games played by other boys his age. Instead, he had to find other ways to spend his time, in which his genius first showed up. His experimental ingenious shone thorough in his various creations of kites with lanterns, and perfectly constructed mechanical toys that he made entirely by himself. He created things such as waterwheels, a mill that grounded wheat into flour and other such inventions and toys. He was educated at Trinity College and Cambridge, and lived there from 1661 till 1696, during which time he produced the majority of his work in mathematics. Isaac Newton died of old age at Kensington, London on March 20th 1727. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was born on June 21st, 1646. His father died before he was six. Leibniz attended a school in Leipzig and the education there at the time that he attended was inadequate to say the least. Leibniz however being the genius that he was taught himself to read Latin and Greek by the time he was twelve. Leibniz attended the University of Leipzig studying law at that age of fifteen. Before Leibniz was twenty he mastered the fundamentals of mathematics, philosophy, theology, literature, logic, metaphysics, and law. At the age of twenty Leibniz was

The Masculine Gender Role

2002-12-03T13:00:00-05:00

Masculinity is a topic that has been debated in our society often, through research as well as in our daily lives. Many wonder what it means to be masculine, and if we can really assign a definition to such a one-sided term. After all, shouldn't an individuals view determine what constitutes masculinity? This view of masculinity would be the ideal in our society, but unfortunately, it represents a false belief. Masculinity has certain characteristics assigned to it by our culture. In this paper I will discuss the many sides of masculinity and show how certain beliefs pertaining to it are caused by our society.

The definition of Masculinity

Men are primarily and secondarily socialized into believing certain characteristics are definitive in determining their manliness and masculinity. These characteristics range from not crying when they get hurt to being and playing violently. The socialization of masculinity in our society begins as early as the first stages of infancy. A child's growing sense of self or self-concept is a result of the multitude of ideas, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs to which he is exposed (Cushner). From the outset of a boy's life he is socialized into the belief that he should be 'tough'. Often when boys get hurt, 'scrape their knee', or come whimpering to their mother or father, the famous words, "boys don't cry", are bound to come out. Children internalize parental messages regarding gender at an early age, with awareness of adult sex role differences being found in two-year-old children (Cushner). One study found that children at two and a half years of age use gender stereotypes in negotiating their world and are likely to generalize gender stereotypes to a variety of activities, objects, and occupations (Cushner). This legitimization teaches males that boys and men are not allowed to cry. There also exists the belief that boys are often required to do 'men's work' outside of the home such as mowing the lawn, cleaning the garage, etc., and not 'sissy women's work' such as cooking and cleaning, etc. The violence boys' witness on television further support this belief. Bowker explains that advertising imagery associates masculinity with violence. For boys this means aggression is instrumental in that it enables them to establish their masculinity. Lee Bowker researched the influence advertisements have on youth. He asserts that toy advertisements featuring only boys depict aggressive behavior. Also, the aggressive behavior generally results in positive

Benjamin Franklin

2002-11-24T13:00:00-05:00

Franklin was born on January 17, 1706, in Boston. His father, Josiah Franklin, a tallow chandler by trade (someone who trades the hard fat from cattle, sheep, or horses which was used for candles, soaps, and lubricants) had 17 children; Benjamin was the 15th child and the 10th son. His mother, Abiah Folger, was his father's second wife. The Franklin family was Generally, like most New Englanders of the time. After his attendance at grammar school from age 8 to 10, Benjamin was taken into his father's business. Finding the work unpleasant, however, he entered the employ of a cutler (someone who makes cutlery). At age 13 he was apprenticed to his brother James, who had recently returned from England with a new printing press. Benjamin learned the printing trade, devoting his spare time to trying to improve his education. When he acquired a copy of the third volume of the Spectator by the British statesmen and essayists Sir Richard Steele and Joseph Addison, he set himself the goal of mastering its writing style. As a result of disagreements with James, Benjamin left Boston and made his way to Philadelphia, arriving in October 1723. There he worked at his trade and made numerous friends, among whom was Sir William Keith, the local governor of Pennsylvania. He persuaded Franklin to go to London to complete his training as a printer and to purchase the equipment needed to start his own printing establishment in Philadelphia. Young Franklin took this advice, arriving in London in December 1724. Not having received from Keith certain promised letters of introduction and credit, Franklin found himself, at age 18, without means in a strange city. With characteristic resourcefulness, he obtained employment at two of the foremost printing houses in London. Palmer's and Watt's. His appearance, bearing, and accomplishments soon won him the recognition of a number of the most distinguished figures in the literary and publishing world. Franklin engaged in many public projects. In 1731 he founded what was probably the first public library in America, chartered in 1742 as the Philadelphia Library. He first published Poor Richard's Almanack in 1732, under the pen name Richard Saunders. This modest volume quickly gained a wide and appreciative audience, and its homespun, practical wisdom exerted a pervasive influence upon the American character. In 1736 Franklin became clerk of the Pennsylvania General Assembly and the next year was appointed deputy postmaster of

Questions: Reactivity Series

2002-11-24T13:00:00-05:00

2.The ancient Egyptians put gold and silver objects into tombs.

a) Explain why people opening the tombs thousands of years later find the objects still in good condition.

Because gold and silver are nearly at the bottom of the reactivity series meaning they do not react with air. If they had been higher and had reacted with air they would have decomposed over the years.

b) Explain why no iron objects are found in the tombs.

Because iron is higher up than gold or silver on the reactivity series and does react with air

3.a) Which are attacked by acid rain more readily:

(i) Lead gutters or (ii) Iron drain pipes? Explain your answer fully.

Iron drainpipes because iron forms an oxide (rusts) with water and because it is higher up on the reactivity series than lead

b) Food cans are made of iron coated with tin. How does this help them to resist attack by the acids in food?

Tin

Eating Disorders

2002-11-24T13:00:00-05:00

Bulimia Nervosa

Bulimia Nervosa is a serious eating disorder in which the sufferer binges and then vomits, often repeatedly, in order to lose or control weight. People suffering from bulimia are often slightly overweight and they often eat large quantities of food before making themselves sick. Treatment looks at the whole lifestyle of the person. People suffering from Bulimia need special support from doctors, psychiatrists and dieticians. Princess Diana suffered from Bulimia Nervosa

Anorexia Nervosa

Anorexia Nervosa is a disruption in normal eating habits characterised by an all-consuming fear of becoming "fat." It typically starts in teenage women as a normal attempt to diet but gradually leads to more and more weight loss, often more than 25 percent of original body weight. There is an intense obsession with food and body size, which may involve compulsive exercising. As this happens, many normal activities may stop. Menstruation ceases in women and there are a number of physical symptoms of malnutrition such as lowered heart rate, low blood pressure, decreased metabolic rate and feelings of coldness. People with anorexia nervosa are obsessed with food and deny that they have a problem or that they are too thin. They may be able to work or study and have some social life but usually function far below their potential. Frequently they are also depressed. Some people with extreme cases of anorexia starve themselves to death. Others check the downward spiral of weight loss and maintain a steady but seriously underweight condition. In all cases, even massive weight losses don’t stop the sufferer feeling "fat."

Obesity

If you consume more calories than you burn, you will gain weight. The tricky part of the equation is that some people metabolise food differently from others. Why this happens is complex and not entirely clear to researchers, who continue to be surprised by each new finding. For example, one recent study concluded that heavy people actually burn calories faster than underweight people because their metabolism speeds up as they put on pounds, and slows if they try to take them off. You are considered obese if you have A body-fat percentage greater than 30 percent for women and 25 percent for men or if you weigh 20 percent more than your ideal body weight. Your ideal weight is based on your gender, age and typical activity level (whether you tend to be inactive or active).

Coeliacs Disease

The human body's immune system is designed

Adolescence: Whose Hell is It?

2002-11-16T13:00:00-05:00

Throughout the article, “Adolescence: Whose Hell is It?” by Virginia Rutter, there is an astonishing analysis on the way teens behave today and how parents are responding to their behavior in return. Rutter points out that as the adolescent rates of depression, suicide, substance abuse, delinquency, sexual activity, and health problems drastically increase, there are too few parents who are responding to the needs of their adolescent children. Parents are clearly the most influential models outside of the school, which can altar the amount of success in the classroom. The author discusses how adolescents are emotionally and mentally separate from both children and adults because they can’t reason like adults, however they think more maturely than children. In this scenario it is very easy for a parent to continue to treat their teenage son or daughter like a child, which could lead to an early decaying relationship with the parent. Within American society, kids entering into their adolescent years usually bring a social stigma that culturally depicts teenagers as rebellious and lazy youths. Rutter explains that parents also continue to carry this social stigma with their own children. A report within the article stated that teens overall still have high levels of respect towards their parents. However, “when fighting does occur, it’s in families with younger teenagers, and it has to do at least in part with their burgeoning cognitive abilities” (Rutter 119). Rutter also explains that while teenagers naturally develop a surge of hormonal activity during the first few years of adolescence, there can tend to be more aggression and depression within the adolescent. However, Rutter believes that it is the parents who truly effect the way the teenager thinks and acts. The relationship through parents and their adolescent children will always be a mutual one. If the mutual relationship is broken on either end, than there will be consequences for both the parent and the teenager. Rutter believes that if parents don’t keep positive attitudes towards their adolescent child then it can have harsh affects on their own feelings. “Scientists have studied the behavior and emotions of parents as well as their adolescent children, and found that when children reach puberty, parents experience tremendous changes in themselves” (Rutter 119). For instance, Rutter points to how marital satisfaction in fathers is directly affected by how actively their adolescents are dating. She also discusses the impact of working parents. Working parents may become

Speech Input and Output for Commercial Information Systems

2002-11-09T13:00:00-05:00

Abstract

Conventional user input devices such as keyboards and mice are not natural or necessarily intuitive and are often detrimental to the efficiency of a computer user. Complex user interfaces can slow a user’s progress and prolonged use of keyboards, mice and monitors can result in muscle strain and permanent injury. The learning curve of these traditional devices is also steep for new users – learning where the keys are, learning the right amount of power required to move a mouse, how fast to double-click and counter-intuitive software interfaces make it very difficult for a user to effectively use a computer without investing time in learning how to operate it. Since the natural communication method for humans is speech, it makes sense that speech be investigated as a possible input and output method. This paper discusses the technology of speech recognition as an input method and speech synthesis as an output method; how the technology is currently being used in commercial systems and possible applications in the future.

Introduction

The primary reason speech is being researched as an input and output device is convenience. Current computers are controlled with keyboard and mice, limiting users to the desktop environment where the computer and processor physically exists (“Microsoft Research,” 2001). If the computer could be controlled without these physical interfaces it could be used anywhere and output information to the user at any time, in the user’s native language. Speech-controlled devices also make irrelevant user interface usability issues (McKay, 2001) and lessen the learning curve of a new computer user. Accessibility for disabled users will cease to be an issue with speech devices; no longer will fine coordination and vision be required to effectively operate a computer. The aim of speech interface research is to allow computers to work alongside the user, making computing less time consuming and more productive. But for this to work effectively, speech recognition and synthesis needs to be combined with the artificial intelligence (and appropriate network infrastructure) to understand natural language, allowing users to simply ‘ask’ the computer to do something for them, rather than issuing a string of commands. The use of artificial intelligence to learn to understand what a particular user wants and means is what makes this approach to computing so effective and desirable.

Speech Recognition

Speech recognition, taking voice input and interpreting it either as commands or converting to text, has been the topic of research for many

Sarin Gas and other Nerve Agents

2002-11-09T13:00:00-05:00

The arms race has always been occurring, as people endlessly compete to have more power and better weapons. This century great leaps in technology have been made, explosives and bombs have been the main weapon of development. However the problem with bombs is that they destroy everything they hit, not only do they destroy the designated target but also everything else around it. This renders the land and buildings in the hit zone useless, and causes more damage than is necessary. This problem especially arises when the targets are human, and you only want to destroy them. The answer to this problem was biological and chemical weapons. Lethal gases such as Sarin gas are used throughout the world in a new age of biological and chemical warfare. Though illegal they are still being used in terrorist attacks and wars today. These weapons are more commonly known in the scientific world as nerve agents or nerve gases of which there are over 2000 varieties, but they are only one type of chemical warfare. They were discovered completely by accident in 1930 by a chemist called Dr. Gerhard Schrader who worked for a company called “IG Farben”, he discovered nerve agents while trying to create a more effective insecticide. What he came across was Tabun, an enormously toxic organophosphate compound. Organophosphates kill insects and humans by jamming the nervous system, which is why he was using it to try and develop an insecticide. After two more years of development he created an even stronger gas Sarin.

History

Looking back over the centuries, it seems chemical warfare has been in use ever since fighting between people started. The first recorded evidence of chemical weapons was in 400bc, when Spartan Greeks used Sulphur fumes against enemy soldiers. Sulphur was not very efficient and rarely killed, but often disorientated or knocked out the victim(s). Gradually over the year’s chemical warfare developed, from the early use of poisons like cyanide for assassinations to the invention of nerve gases such as Sarin. The first real use of nerve agents was during World war one on April 22, 1915. During the battle of Ypres, the Germans utilised nerve agents for the first time ever for war purposes. They unleashed a deadly new gas called “chlorine gas”(CL2) on the British and French in a trail run. It was estimated that this new blistering agent cost over 5000 lives. In retaliation to

Germ Warfare

2002-11-08T13:00:00-05:00

Biological or germ weapons are living organisms used for the military and intended to cause diseases or death in human, animal, or plant life. They are made up of organisms that are highly contagious and reproduce very quickly. The groups using germs as their weapons depend on their fast reproduction. There are a wide range of techniques and agents that can be used in germ warfare. The most common

Common Cold

2002-10-05T14:00:00-04:00

The common cold has been around since the Greeks where physician Hipprocrates suggested that the stuffed up feeling was the result of too much waste matter in the brain. When you received a runny nose, it was the waste overflowing. After the Renaissance, doctors began to study the human body and eventually discovered bacteria. After viruses were uncovered in 1898, German scientist Walter von Kruse suggested viruses were the cause of colds. His findings weren’t confirmed until 1938. In 1955, Sir Christopher Andrewes identified a virus that caused colds; he made a vaccine against it only to find out there were over 200 viruses that caused colds People can catch the common cold in many different ways. Some can catch the common cold by breathing in the germ, which gets past the mucus of your nose and into a cell. When a person who has a cold coughs or sneezes, tiny droplets of moisture that contains germs spray out. The common cold can also be caught through direct contact, especially when hands have contact with the eyes or mouth. Not only can the common cold spread through direct contact, but indirect contact too. A child with a cold could touch a toy and another will touch the same toy. People sometimes catch the common cold because they have nasal allergies or physiological stress, which makes them more vulnerable to the cold. Cold weather also allows people to catch colds because of the extra time they spend indoor, which increases the chances of viruses being transmitted from one to another. In addition, the cold weather lowers humidity where cold – causing viruses can survive better. Also, during the cold weather, a person’s nasal passage lining becomes drier reducing the chances of stopping viruses. Lastly, the common cold is neither a genetic nor hormonal disease. Population most infected by the common cold is relative young children. Children receive six to ten colds a year while adults receive two to four colds. Women in their 20 to 30 years of age catch colds more often than men because of their more frequent contact with children. Adults over 60 years of age have fewer than one cold per year. The common cold this year is more likely to happen in central United States where most of the cool wind is blowing. Before a common cold starts, warning signs are perceived, some are: stuffy nose, hoarse throat, light

Chromium - research

2002-10-05T14:00:00-04:00

Chromium was discovered by Louis – Nicholas Vauquelin in France, 1797 and prepared the metal itself the following year. The name Chromium originated from the Greek word “chroma” meaning “color”, named for

MP3 Player - Narrative paper

2002-10-04T14:00:00-04:00

In April of 1999, the term “MP3” surpassed “Sex” as the most searched on term at some of the internet’s top search engines (Hacker, Scott: P1). The MP3 format for the songs has completely changed the way people look at the world of music. It changed the way of listening to music from the conventional tapes and CD’s. MP3 stands for Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) Audio Layer-3. The MP3 format employs an algorithm and it was first developed by a German company, Fraunhofer Gesellschaft, in 1987. This technology was patented in 1989 in Germany and transferred to United States in 1996 (www.webmonkey.com). The Moving Pictures Experts Group (MPEG) was created in 1988. Originally intended for HDTV systems MP3 format has created a revolution the way music is stored and listened to by people. The MP3 format is a compression system for music. The MP3 format helps to reduce the number of bytes in a song without hurting the sound quality. The basic function of the MP3 format is to compress a CD-quality song by a factor of 10 to 14, without spoiling the CD quality of the sound. A 32-megabyte song on a CD compresses down to 3 megabytes or so on MP3. With this method a song can be downloaded in minutes rather than hours. It is possible to store hundreds of songs on a computer's hard disk taking very little space of the hard disk. The songs can also be burned into a CD or an MP3 player. An average CD song, 3 minutes long, takes up 32 MB of space. A 3-minute MP3 song takes up about 1.6 MB, which means that approximately 20 MP3 songs can fit into the same space as one CD song (Howstuffworks.com/mp3player.htm). MP3.com, Inc. is home to one of the largest collections of digital music on the internet. A favorite of music fans and emerging artists alike, MP3.com features streaming and downloadable music from more than 200,000 artists and over 1.2 million songs (www.MP3.com). Though MP3 players hit the market in 1997 it was 1999, when the music company “Napster” hit the internet, that the popularity of MP3 players started growing and had reached its peak. MPMan was the first portable MP3 player that was developed in 1997 by saehan a Korean Company (www.mpman.com). From the first MP3 player MPMan until today many companies have entered the market of MP3 players. Today

Video Games

2002-10-03T14:00:00-04:00

In 1949, a young engineer named Ralph Baer was given an assignment to build a television set. He wasn't supposed to build just any television set, but one that would be the absolute best of all televisions. This was not a problem for Baer, but he wanted to go beyond his original assignment and incorporate some kind of game into the set. He didn't know exactly what kind of game he had in mind, but it didn't really matter because his managers nixed the idea. It would take another 18 years for his idea to become a reality, and by that time there would be other people to share in the glory, like Willy Higginbotham, who designed an interactive tennis game played on an oscilloscope, and Steve Russell, who programmed a rudimentary space game on a DEC PDP-1 mainframe computer. And then there was also Nolan Bushnell, who played that space game and dreamed of a time when fairground midways would be filled with games powered by computers. (Leo 1). Today, there are many kinds of video games from adventure to virtual reality and to sports. My favorites are NFL 2K1, Grand Theft Auto III and FIFA ‘99. Simply put, NFL 2K1 is the best football game ever made. The gameplay, the players and the new options are all silky smooth. The graphics have much the same look as last years version, but with a whole different feel. The players now react much cooler, with an astounding amount of animations that take place before, during and after a play. A receiver will look to the crowd, with arms outstretched, acting disgusted with himself for dropping an easy pass. An offensive lineman will get in a pushing match with a defensive player after a play, to mention a few. (Jerred 2) Grand Theft Auto III is a racing game but goes over the limit. It has been a favorite series for many gamers, not only because of the quality of the series, but because of the game's shocking over-the-top violence. Being an extremely gruesome game for its time, the original Grand Theft Auto was ridiculed by politicians and parents alike as being violent and inhumane. The series' third outing builds on to the formula which made its predecessors so popular and throws it all into a 3D world. The top down view is replaced by a more traditional 3rd person view and the

Vitamin C

2002-10-01T14:00:00-04:00

Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin, and is also know n as Ascorbic Acid. It was first isolated in 1928 by the Hungarian biochemist and Nobel prize winner, Dr. Szent-Gyorgyi. Two-time Nobel prize winner, Dr. Linus Pauling was the first to realize vitamin C’s importance in a healthy immune system. Most animals can produce their own vitamin C. Man, primates (apes, chimps, etc.), and guinea pigs, however, have lost the ability. They instead have to get it through their diet. It was a Scottish physician named James Lind, back in 1753, who first said that fresh vegetables and ripe fruit could be used to prevent scurvy (a severe vitamin C deficiency, which is rarely seen today). The British Navy took his advice about 404 years later, taking lime juice on long sea voyages to ward off the disease. For this, they were nicknamed, “Limeys.” 42.2% of vitamin C comes from vegetables, 41.5% from fruits, 3.2% from dairy products, 2.3% from meat, poultry and fish, and .9% from other foods – legumes, nuts and soy (.1%) and miscellaneous foods (.8%). In the average American diet, 93% of their vitamin C comes from fruits and vegetables and citrus fruits and tomatoes contribute to almost half of the vitamin C provided by the fruits and vegetable group. Foods that contain small amounts of vitamin C and are not considered good sources of calcium can contribute a good amount of vitamin C to a diet if eaten often or in large amounts. Some good sources of vitamin C include broccoli, red peppers, parsley, potatoes, strawberries, and oranges, etc. Vitamin C can be damaged during food preparation, like when chopping, cooking, boiling, exposure to air, and being submerged in water. The amount of vitamin C is high enough in most foods though, that the amount after this is more than enough. To keep the vitamin C from being damaged you can eat fruits and vegetables raw whenever possible, and cook potatoes in their skin. Steam, boil or simmer in a small amount of water, or microwave for a short time. Refrigerate prepared juices and don’t store them longer than two or three days, and when storing cut/raw fruits and vegetables keep in an airtight container and refrigerate (don’t soak or store in water). The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for adolescents is 75mg per day for males and 65mgs per day for females. Adults should have 90mg per day for

Anxiety

2002-09-25T14:00:00-04:00

Anxiety disorders are the most common of all the mental disorders. They affect an estimated 8 to 10 of every 100 children and adolescents. Anxiety is the brain’s way of telling the body that there is danger, something difficult, or something painful coming. It is a biological process that tells us when we can stay where we are, and when we either need to protect ourselves or move to a safer place. When the brain tells the body there is danger, the Sympathetic Nervous System starts up, making the person anxious. They increase their oxygen by breathing faster and shallower. It increases the heart rate and the blood to muscles of the arms and legs. It is also what makes the body focus its attention on running, fighting, ducking, etc. The Sympathetic Nervous System is what causes you to have clammy hands and feet, an upset stomach, or a sense of dread when you’re anxious. When studying worry, scientists found more activity in the left-hemisphere. Worry is associated more with obsessing, going over and over something, or making up stories in your head. When the brain recognizes that you’re not in danger anymore, the Parasympathetic Nervous System goes to work doing the exact opposite, to bring the systems back to normal. Sometimes the brain gets stuck in the Sympathetic (survival) mode, and the Parasympathetic Nervous System doesn’t receive the response to start. This is when an anxiety disorder develops. Anxiety helps you cope by getting you ready to face a threatening situation. It makes you alert and gives you an adrenaline boost to help you perform better. When the anxiety/fear makes you unable to perform an activity, lasts for months after the event has passed, and/or is more intense, there’s an anxiety disorder. Anxiety disorders are illnesses that cause people to experience excessive fear, worry, or uneasiness that interferes with their daily lives. There are many different anxiety disorders. Some are:

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) – people with this disorder suffer from excessive, unrealistic worry that lasts six months or more. They tend to be very hard on themselves (perfectionists) sometimes doing tasks repeatedly. They also might seek constant approval or reassurance from others. Symptoms include trembling, muscle aches, insomnia, abdominal discomfort, dizziness, headache, irritability, and difficulty concentrating.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) – people with this disorder have persistent, recurring thoughts (obsessions) that form from exaggerated fears. The obsessions sometimes lead to over-performing a routine

Are Backpacks a Health Risk?

2002-09-19T14:00:00-04:00

Although many students have considered -- but for now rejected -- seeking medical attention, many other young people and their worried parents are consulting their doctors about muscle strains thought to be due to carrying heavy backpacks. "Sometimes I have shoulder pains. There’s a sore, pulling feeling, and I worry about my spine being bent over all crooked under the weight," Parker said, "But I don’t really have a choice. There’s not enough time between all of my classes to go to my locker." “Most students are carrying way too much weight in their backpacks and they are carrying them fashionably but improperly, slung over one shoulder," Blass said. According to guidelines from the American Chiropractic Association and the American Occupational Therapy Association, students shouldn’t carry more than 10% of their body weight in a backpack. The backpacks should

Presymptomatic Testing For Huntington Disease

2002-08-28T14:00:00-04:00

Huntington Disease, (HD), is a hereditary degenarative brain disease. Usually begining in mid-life, cells in the caudate nucleus of the brain begin to die, causing a relentless deterioration of intellectual ability, emotional control, motor skills, balance and speech. Chorea, or involuntary movements, is nearly always a symptom as well. HD is caused by a single dominant gene. Every child of an affected parent has a 50% chance of inheriting the gene that causes HD. The HD gene is found on chromosome 4. It is inherited as an autosomal dominant condition. Since it is not carried on one of the sex chromosomes, male and female offspring have the same chance of being affected. Presymptomatic testing is a method for identifying persons carrying the HD gene before symptoms appear. This can be useful for couples who have a history of HD in their families and wish to know if they have the HD gene before deciding upon having children. The genetic testing itself involves donating a small sample of blood that is screened in the laboratory for the presence or abscence of the HD mutation. Testing may require a sample of D.N.A from a closely related affected relative, preferably a parent, for the purpose of confirming the diagnosis of HD in the family. Genetic techniques used to do presymptomatic testing for the HD gene can be Gel Electrophoresis or Polymerase Chain Reaction (P.C.R). The Polymerase Chain Reaction is a technique used to amplify a particular fragment or sequence of DNA. Gel Electrophoresis is used to 'sort out' specific genes on D.N.A. Restriction enzymes are used to 'cut' the D.N.A sequence needed in P.C.R. P.C.R is a technique which is used to amplify the number of copies of a specific reigon of D.N.A to be adequately tested. The first step of P.C.R - Unknown D.N.A is heated, which causes the paired strands to seperate (single strands now accessible to primers). Second step - Add large excess of primers relative to the amount of D.N.A being amplified, and cool the reaction mixture to allow double strands to form again. Third step - To a mixture of all 4 individual letters (deoxyribonucleotides), add an enzyme which can 'read' the opposing strands 'sentence' and extend the primers 'sentence' by 'hooking' letters together in the order in which they can pair across from one another - A:T and C:G. The enzyme used in P.C.R is Taq Polymerase because it can withstand high

Sensation

2002-08-23T14:00:00-04:00

The Senses Act as A Data Reduction System

Sensation is the stimulation of the sense organs by the external and internal environments. Sensations shape impressions of reality by interpreting the process that the individual feels, touches, smells and sees the world around. As Coon (1995) states The senses act as a data reduction system. Not only do the senses reduce data from both environments, but they also create a subjective reality by going beyond the raw data. The senses only experience a limited potion of energy available. Each of the five senses respond to different energy forms, the eye only responds electromagnetic energy (Waves which vary in the distance between one peak and the next), which is further reduced as the human can only see 10% of the electromagnetic spectrum although humans rely heavily on the eye to perceive the objective reality. It is believed that humans can only detect sensations necessary for their survival, as humans can not see things such as sona, while bats can. It may appear simple process to create reality, but infact it is a very complex process. There are several stages that the eye goes though to enable sight as the eyes and brain together form the visual system. When the light falls on the retina the feature detectors (specialised neutrons that respond to certain attributes of the stimuli) then respond to specific features of the information received. Transduction is a process that converts electromagnetic energy from the external reality into electrochemical energy so the brain and nervous system can use. It occurs at the back of the eye, and happens because the brain can only interpret one form of energy, meaning that all senses detect other forms of energy and then transduce it into electrochemical energy. As the electromagnetic energy is being transduced, it is also sorted and isolated. This process is known as selection. While moving though anywhere in the neural pathways to the brain, the image is coded into things such as size, colour and movement by things known as feature detectors. The image is further then reconstructed at the back of the brain. Interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to sensory information detected previously by the visual detectors. Our ability to detect the environment depends on what signals our nervous system is able to detect, further contributing to Coon’s statement that the senses act as a data reduction system. The senses act limit

How forgetting occurs

2002-08-23T14:00:00-04:00

Without memory (An active information processing system, that receiveds, organises, stores and retrives information) every moment would be a new experience. Forgetting (the inability to retrive previously stored information) occurs when the information is not availble or accesible. Because psychologists don’t know exactly how memories are stored, or what form they take, it is not possible to say exactly how the individual forgets.. However there are several theores suggesting why forgetting occurs, such as the interferance and decay theory. Although it may seem that forgetting is a problem, infact it is necessary to keep humans sane. Otherwise humans would be bombarded with and remember unnecessary information therefor memory is a survival mechanisn (fryod) All information detected by sensory receptors enters the sensory memory. It is the entry area of memory, wehre all the stimuli that bombard the senses are kept in their original form and are not encoded (The process of preparing information for storage in the memory system) and are kept there for a breif time. When the indidivudal pays attention to information in the sensory memory, the information enters short term memory (STM) It is a memory system that has a limited storage capacity. After around 18 seconds memory in STM that is not rehearsed (the processess of doing something so that the information can be retained in memory. Eg repetition) has fleeted. Miller found that the average capacity of STM was 7 plus or minus 2 bits of information but can be improved by chunking. (Separate peices of information combiined) The information is chunked according to meaning, they can take any form, words, images or phrases. If the infomration in STM is not rehearsed of rehersal is interupted the information disapears, and can never be reterned again. Most forgetting occurs due to faliure to encode, meaning that the information had never been placed in LTM. To be encoded in Long Term Mermory (LTM) (The relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of information for a long period of time) the information must be meaningfull of rehearsed. Once it is encoded the information must be consoltiadated, and without it, information is lost. Many psychologists belive that LTM has several types and levels each of which is specialised for different types of knowledge. Procedual memory enables indidivudal to preform certain skills such as typing, tieing shoes, and driving while declaritive memory is used to store facts which is then further divided

Skidding

2002-08-18T14:00:00-04:00

To skid means to slide or slip (without revolving) over a surface, because of loss of traction. Skidding caused over 24,000 accidents in 2001. Out of these 24,000, about 200 caused death, 7,000 caused personal injury, and 17,000 caused property damage. Applying the brakes or accelerator too hard, spinning the wheels, and going around a curve too fast can all cause you to start skidding? Other factors that contribute to skidding include how well your vehicle holds the road, traction (what makes the car “stick” to the roadway), road surface - (Is the road asphalt or concrete? Rough or smooth? The rougher it is, the better the wheels hold), vehicle velocity, and road conditions (Icy, snowy and rain covered roadways prevent your tires from holding as well), weather, lighting, condition of tires (A deflated tire has too much play and an over-inflated tire will skim across the road. A new tire with a lot of tread will grip the roadway better. An over-heated tire will get soft and lose its grip), the type of vehicle, steering input (novice drivers will sometimes overreact when they start to skid, turn the wheel too far in the opposite direction, and start skidding again), suspension system, speed and direction of the vehicle - (The faster you go, the more energy your vehicle has to use before it comes to a stop. If the road is heading east, and you are going North, you will have a better chance of skidding.), vehicle load, etc. The most important thing you should remember when you start to skid is not to panic, if you don’t panic you’ll be able to remember what to do. The key to controlling a skid is steering, not braking, so you should always steer gently into the skid. Your front wheels skid when you brake or accelerate hard, or if your vehicle has front-wheel drive. If your front wheels start to skid, focus on the take your foot off the brake or accelerator, and de-clutch on a car with a manual transmission/shift to neutral on a car with automatic transmission. If the front wheels have been turned before losing traction, don’t move the steering wheel (when the wheels are skidding sideways you’ll have more braking force). You should only straighten out the steering wheel if there is limited space or sharp curves. In that case, you would not release the brake pedal. Wait for the front

Critically evaluate the statement “The psychodynamic perspective offers a satisfactory explanation o

2002-07-30T14:00:00-04:00

The psychodynamic perspective was the basis on which all psychological perspectives spawned from. However, the fact that other psychological perspectives were created after (or as reactions to) the psychodynamic perspective demonstrates that it is flawed, possibly in more way than one. Although this perspective offers an explanation for many things that confound people even today, its explanations are not always satisfactory to the human mind. In the instances where its theories are satisfactory to human logic and perception, they are most often theories that are unable to be proven. Many of the early explanations attempting to explain behavioral phenomena were based upon assumptions made by Freud. For example, Freud believed that man is not a rational being, that humans are driven by instincts and drives, that women are inferior, and that “anatomy is destiny.” He further developed these ideas into psychosexual stages of behavioral development upon these assumptions. He believed that every human being followed the same pattern as they matured, but that they only had the ability to change until they reached puberty. From this, he developed five psychosexual stages, and a list of cause and effect problems that can go wrong in them. For example, a problem occurring in the oral stage can result in people smoking later on in life. A problem in the anal stage can result in an anal retentive personality (i.e. he or she will tend to be especially clean, perfectionistic, dictatorial, very stubborn, and stingy). These problems are what he said were the cause of bizarre behaviors. However, none of these can be proved by scientific means, and many of the assumptions and the psychosexual stages are rejected in today’s society (such as the notion that women are inferior, and that people have no ability to change after a certain time in their life). Erickson, believing in many of the same basic assumptions that Freud did, but not believing that all human behavior revolved around the issue of sex, created a psychosocial aspect within the psychodynamic perspective. He believed, like Freud, that humans went through stages in their lives, which always followed the same progression. He also believed, like Freud, that problems occurring during any of these stages, or not successfully completing a stage, would result in how that person would behave throughout life. Unlike Freud, however, Erickson’s stages begin at birth and continue throughout a person’s life. They also deal with many of the

Downs Syndrome

2002-06-10T14:00:00-04:00

Introduction

In the United States about one in every 1000 live births is a child with Downs Syndrome. Downs Syndrome affects all races and genders. It is caused by extra genetic material on the twenty-first chromosome. There are three different types of Downs Syndrome known to man today. The first case of reported was in the late 1950’s, but the condition was identified in the late 1960’s. In most cases it is simple to identify an individual with Downs Syndrome. In most cases the facial features give it away, but today with new technology it is easy to make these features less noticeable. While there is no “cure” for Downs Syndrome, there are treatments that can help patient’s live full and happy lives. These treatments are not proven to be one hundred percent affective, but they have helped many patients to live happier, more comfortable lives. The Medical problems are involved with Downs Syndrome are more severe in Downs then they would be in that of a healthy child.

What is Downs Syndrome?

Named for a British Doctor, John Langdon Down, who first clinically identified the condition in 1866, Downs Syndrome is a genetic condition caused by extra genetic genes from the twenty-first chromosome(figure 1). It is unknown what causes the extra chromosome, but tit produces extra proteins, and when the extra chromosome is present the production of the proteins are doubled and causes the typical Downs Syndrome features. (“The Story of Downs Syndrome”) What are the Different Types of Downs Syndrome? Figure 2 Downs Syndrome, sometimes refereed to as DS or Downs, can occur in three different forms, Trisomy 21 (figure 2), Translocation, and Mosiac. The most common of the three, Trisomy 21, affecting 95 percent of patients with Downs Syndrome is caused by an extra 21st chromosome. Usually a person has twenty-three pairs of chromosomes, each made up of genes, but in Trisomy 21 (nondisjunction) the person has three number 21 chromosomes instead\ad of two. This occurs when the formation of the egg or sperm a double-dose of the chromosome goes to the egg or sperm. Usually when the egg or sperm are forming they split so that only one chromosome is in the egg or sperm, but in trisomy 21 they don’t split causing the individual to have more chromosomes then they need. In the second form, translocation, which occurs in about three or four percent of Downs cases. In

Fingerprinting

2002-06-03T14:00:00-04:00

Detectives arrived on the scene after complaints of screaming heard by a neighbor down the street. Besides the blood painted walls and drenched sheets, there lay a lump of human parts on the bed. What they found was the body of a prostitute that had been bound and beheaded with her liver placed between her lacerated legs. Recognized to be human only by the eyes that were missing from her skull, she had fallen victim to a psychotic eradicator. Jack the Ripper, known as one of the most historically significant serial killers of all time, left his victims’ bodies most unidentifiable, but not the latent fingerprints he left behind that later convicted him. Forensic science used in criminal justice has recently been revolutionized with new DNA technology, but fingerprinting is still the most valid and effective form of identification used in law enforcement today. Going back in the time of ancient Babylon, fingerprints and ridge patterns were used on clay tablets for business transactions and governmental procedures. By the 14th century, the fact that no two prints were alike was becoming more noticeable, thus the history of the fingerprint began (Von Minden 1). Noting the ridges, spirals, and loops in fingerprints, Marcello Malpighi, a professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna, made no declaration to the value of personal identification, but began to point out the differences in fingerprint patterns in 1686. Then, in 1823, a professor of anatomy at the University of Breslau, John Evangelist Purkinji, discussed nine fingerprint patterns in a published thesis, but still did not take notice to the individuality of each print (Von Minden 1). It wasn’t until 1856 that Englishman and Chief Magistrate, Sir William Hershel, used fingerprints on native documents. Doing so was “...to frighten [him] out of all the thought of repudiating his signature.” After gathering many prints, Hershel took notice to the fact that all the prints were unique and could prove identity from all those he made transactions with (Von Minden 2). Dr. Henry Faulds, the British Surgeon-Superintendent of Tsukihi Hospital in Tokyo, Japan, shared his studies with Charles Darwin in 1880, but Darwin, who was rather ill at the time, could be of no service to Faulds studies. Eight years later, Sir Francis Galton, a British anthropologist and Darwin’s cousin, began to study Faulds’ articles on fingerprint classification. Galton began to concentrate on linking fingerprints to genetic history and intelligence, but had no

Current Copyright and Patent laws: Weak and Ineffective

2002-05-11T14:00:00-04:00

The world of today is drastically different from that of twenty years ago. Ideas, life, and technology have changed in many ways. Computers and software have developed significantly since the start of the computer revolution. From the first computer, software has become more important. Our lives all revolve around computers and software. People use them to make math easier with calculators, and use them to withdraw money on the go with ATM machines. However, even with all the technological help that has presented in the past few decades, software and the people who write it barely protected by law. Current copyright and patent laws are not strong enough to protect programmers' rights, and they even slow down software development and reduce competition; software is not a physical thing and by nature completely defenseless, as it is more or less simply intellectual property, and thus, is very easily copied. There are two categories of intellectual property. The first one is composed of writing, music, and film, which are covered by copyright. Patents cover inventions and innovations (Bassinger 24-28). These two categories have safely covered many kinds of work, with little or no conflict for years. For example, Susan Willis described Disney World's strict policy on photography in her essay, "Disney World: Public Use/Private State:" "The merchandise, the costumes, the scenery ¡V all is either stamped with the Disney logo or Covered by copyright legislation¡K it is impossible to photograph at Disney World without running the risk of infringing a Disney copyright," and "the only thing that saves the average family from a lawsuit is that most don't use their vacation photos as a means for making profit" (Willis 751). Unfortunately, it is not that easy when dealing with such a complex matter such as computer software. For example, there is a program that can perform specific tasks¡Xcreating, editing, deleting, and formatting texts¡Xsuch as Microsoft Word. Before, the program could be used to do those specific jobs; the program is in the text format that is just like an essay with strange form. Therefore, when something is typed on a computer, it is considered writing, as it is all written words and numbers. However, when executed by the computer, it functions like an invention, performing a specific task as instructed by the user. Thus, software falls into both categories (Salone 25). As illustrate above, software can either fall into the categories of copyrights or

The northern lights: aurora borealis

2002-05-07T14:00:00-04:00

You are outside on a clear summer’s night, when all of a sudden a flash catches your eye. You whirl around in bewilderment as the black night sky flashes and dances with a whirling array of colors. The northern horizon is draped with an iridescent green, deep blues, sharp violets, scarlet reds, and bright oranges and yellows. You stand awestruck as the colors descend, like a melting rainbow, across the sky. Then, as quickly as they appeared, they vanish without a trace. On clear nights, when the atmosphere is right, an amazing light show dances across the night sky. This natural phenomenon is known as aurora borealis, or the northern lights. This incredible spectacle has been a source of myth and fable for thousands of years, and the explanation behind these beautiful illuminations is as amazing as the lights themselves. Some areas of the earth can view the aurora more often and more brilliantly than others and the spellbinding celestial lights are unlike anything else in this world. Since the beginning of time, ancient civilizations have taken notice of the northern lights, and each had a unique explanation of them. Some believed they were caused as a result of fungi on rotting wood, others believed they were magic, while many believed they were in the presence of temperamental gods and summoning spirits. In China, ancient people believed they were seeing dragons, with brightly colored scales moving silently in the night. Others in the Mediterranean region believed that the red light in the night was blood flung onto the sky. The Vikings believed the aurora was the beautiful maidens called Valkyries, which escorted those killed in battle to the gods. The Sami people of Lapland believed they had power over the lights, and whistling under them would cause them to come closer. Many ancient peoples would not stare at or speak of the aurora, due to a fear of insulting their divine nature. The Finnish called them revontulet, which means fox fires, for the reason that an arctic fox whipping its tail was responsible for throwing snow high into the air, lighting up the sky. Others believed they were torches held by spirits to lead the way to the after life. However enchanting and intriguing these explanations were, we didn’t actually begin to find the real rationalization for the northern lights until 1774, when Jean Jacque Dortous de Mairan of France linked

What are the consequences from human activity that cause algal blooms?

2002-05-04T14:00:00-04:00

Streams, rivers, lakes, and wetlands contain a large part of our precious fresh water. Unfortunately they also act like drains, and everything we leave lying around ends up in them – acids, mercury, cadmium, and lead from industry and other resources; soil from logging operations; phosphorus and nitrogen from detergents; sewage, petrol, oil, plastic bags, aluminum cans and paper from roads and parks – the list is never ending. More often than not, the results are catastrophic. Being thoroughly discussed will be information about the death of rivers due to algal blooms e.g. Murray River, consequences the irrigation and agriculture organizations are causing, what is being done to prevent these problems and what the communities can do to help. “In 1991, a 1000-km-long stretch of the Darling River in New South Wales was entirely covered in poisonous blue-green algae…”(The State Of The Planet, John Nicholson, Pg.22), it was the largest toxic ‘algal bloom’ the world has ever seen. It happened because of two human activities. Algal blooms thrive on phosphorus and nitrogen – two important ingredients of farm fertilizers, animal and human waste, and detergents. Every year 440 tones of phosphorus and 1890 tones of nitrogen end up in the Darling River, mainly from farms and sewage treatment plants. Most rivers around the world have so much nitrogen in them they are unsafe for humans to drink. The algal blooms then use up all the oxygen in the water, so the fish suffocate and some water plants die. The poisonous algae also kill animals that drink at the river. This process only happens if the water is not moving. People pumping water out for irrigation, or holding it back in hydroelectric dams or town water storages and farm dams have reduced the flow of water in most rivers. The Goulburn River has 870 different engineering works along it, each of them helping to reduce the flow. The Upper Murray has 44. Many of the world’s major rivers have so much water taken out of them that they no long reach the sea, at least during the drier months. Another three examples of these situations are The Colorado (USA), Huang He (China), and the Murray (Australia). This is very bad news for many ocean fish, as they need to travel up the rivers every year to spawn in fresh water. And the problem doesn't stop there. Large areas of costal waters,

Acne - Skin's Miniture Volcanoes

2002-05-03T14:00:00-04:00

This purpose of this paper is to explain the cause of acne, give some examples, and how to get help prevent it. This paper will also dispel some of the myths of acne and how it is caused. Acne is a condition of the skin that ranges in appearance from raised bumps to pustules (large cysts and pimples). Acne is so common that more than 80 percent of the population will have some form of it at some time in some time of their lives. Although there are several theories about what causes acne, authorities generally believe that acne is a by-product of hormonal changes in the body during puberty- that period of life when a child develops the secondary sex characteristics (such as facial and body hair, deepened voice, and increased muscle mass in boys and breast development and breast development and menstruation in girls). At this time, production of hormones (particularly the male hormone testosterone) increases and stimulates sebaceous glands in the skin to produce sebum (an oily secretion). Most excess oil produced by these glands leaves the skin through the hair follicles (the tube like structures from which the hair develops). Sometimes, oil clogs these tubes and creates comedones (blocked hair follicles). Comedones are what form the initial lumps in acne. If comedones are open to the surface of the skin, they are called blackheads. They contain sebum from the sebaceous glands, bacteria, and any skin tissue that accumulates near the surface. Comedones that are closed at the surface are called whiteheads. Plugged follicles can rupture internally, resulting in a discharge of their contents into the surrounding tissues. This process begins an inflammatory response that sets the stage fore the development of acne. The role of the bacteria is acne is unclear. Bacteria may act by causing chemical reactions in the sebaceous fluid, leading to the release of very irritating compounds called fatty acids. These in turn may cause inflammation that increases susceptibility to infection. Authorities disagree about the role of diet as the cause of acne. Diet alone does not cure acne, nor does stem from an allergic reaction to a specific food. However, some cases of acne appear to improve after eliminating certain foods, particularly chocolates and fats. In addition, emotional stress seems to increase the severity of acne in certain cases. Acne causes raised swellings, most frequently on the face, neck, and back, chest and shoulders. In severe cases,

Effects of Multimedia

2002-04-30T14:00:00-04:00

Multimedia technologies have, in recent years, become an essential part of our every day lives. Many aspects of life; business and home alike, have changed as a result of multimedia technologies, such as the ways in which we do business, and the ways in which we get entertained. Our lifestyles have become far more technologically orientated, and multimedia has become a way of communicating, entertaining, learning, doing business and even socializing. This essay will discuss some of the ways in which multimedia has impacted on the global lifestyle, including business and entertainment. Computer and console games have become one of the most popular forms of entertainment in the world. The most recent forms of computer games involve 3D landscapes, developed through the use of digital cameras on real-life places. Players of these games can experience a realistic, but fun representation of what it would be like to really be in that place. These games can even be played over the internet with other, real life people, adding to the realism even more. Videos can then be taken of actors in front of blue screens, and these 3D worlds super imposed behind them, creating a realistic movie as a ‘cut-scene’ to the game. Cutting edge technologies such as these are often first displayed in the gaming industry. The process of learning has been made infinitely more enjoyable thanks to multimedia ‘infotainment or edutainment’ products. Entire encyclopedias, complete with movies and sound bytes, are available on a single CD. Products such as Macromedia’s Authorware, have allowed educators to create interactive applications for teaching and testing students. For example, the student may be shown a series of ‘slides’, then a video, then listen to a sound byte about African animals. They can then be tested on the subject matter, and their results printed out for them. Edutainment and infotainment are probably the most practical applications of multimedia technologies. People today are very likely to deal with a computer, through an interactive menu, rather than a real-life worker. Automatic Teller Machines, for example, have all but replaced human tellers for simple tasks such as withdrawals and deposits. Online, banks use interactive flash technology to simplify the process of internet banking for novice users. Flash is a multimedia product, similar to Authorware that is designed for use on the internet. Other places you may use multimedia devices such as interactive menus at an information centre, or tourist

Echo Personality Disorder

2002-04-13T14:00:00-04:00

The term Echo Personality Disorder was coined by British Psychosynthesis practitioner Patrick Hurst, as a replacement term for 'Inverted Narcissism' and 'Covert Narcissism' which later terms place unwarranted emphasis on narcissistic qualities of the personality, which in many of these individuals may not be a feature at all. EPD is a highly differentiated form of Dependent Personality Disorder, marked by behaviours of compliance and a need to 'mirror' significant others -parents, spouse, friends, employer. Individuals with EPD may be attracted to relationships with individuals showing marked narcissistic traits -people who need to be mirrored or praised- though this in no way forms a "standard" or "universal pattern" as is often claimed by theorists. EPD individuals may enter into relationships with a great variety of people, though at core there is a tendency to choose situations in which unrequited love will be the outcome. These traits -choosing significant relationships where love can never be satisfactorily consumated, and the tendency to mirror significant others- were motivating features for choosing the term Echo Personality Disorder. In Greek mythology Echo was the lover of Narcissus. In this myth Echo, a forest nymph, falls in love with the egocentric youth Narcissus, and when he shows clear signs of rejecting her she persists in her attatchement, and will not be moved from her aim. She finally satisfies herself with the masochistic task of echoing back to him all that he says. This too is a central feature of EPD behaviour in relationships, where the individual will mirror, echo, and compliment another at the expense of their own self-worth and dignity. This echoing behaviour, though, does not exhaust the mythological potential of Echo, even if commentators on the myth narrow their descriptions to this single episode with Narcissus. Echo also has relations with Zeus, Hera, Pan, and Gaia, which have a different coloration to those she has with Narcissus, and has many friends in the form of other forest nymphs -"sisters" as we would call them today; attesting to the complexity we find within the Echo personality constellation. Self descriptions of EPD individuals often relate a lack of self worth, and an accompanying fear of rejection, abandonment, and loss, as a result of feeling "unacceptable" to others. These agonizing fears are a driving force behind the above-mentioned interpersonal coping style (mirroring and reflecting others). These individuals protect themselves from rejection/abandonment by acting so agreeable to others, via

Rational-emotive-behaviur-therapy - the logical choice for psychological therapy

2002-04-11T14:00:00-04:00

What is the true study of modern human emotion, thought, and behavior, psychology or philosophy? This question’s answer does not come easily to its solicitor; in fact, the two seemingly different subjects have a distinct and discernible relationship to one another.

“Some things are up to us and some are not up to us. Our opinions are up to us, our impulses, desires, aversions, in-short whatever is our doing. Our bodies are not up to us, nor our possessions, our reputations, or our public offices, or that is, whatever is not of our own doing (Epictetus 1).”

This citation, from a philosopher who lived around 100 B.C., illustrates the relationship between psychology and philosophy. When one examines the language housed within the passage he will understand, in order to lead a blissful life, one must have power over his reaction to an event and not let the event have power over his reaction. This effortless Stoic belief has lead to the development of a modern psychological therapy known as Rational-Emotive-Behavior-Therapy. This therapy uses a logical approach in order to solve problems with the human psyche.If one were to scrutinize the word “Psychological,” he will notice the word “Psycho” which is related to the word “Psyche,” which, in turn, means the human mind and its perception of consciousness. Upon further study of the word “Psychological,” the person in question will notice the latter part of the word is “Logical” which deals with the processing and the capability of rational human thought; therefore, one can infer that a psychological therapy must deal with the subjects awareness of his situation and his ability to rationalize his thoughts of such events. Rational-Emotive-Behavior-Therapy executes this conjecture to the letter. REBT is a reflexive approach to psychology that is gaining popularity. Today, REBT uses can be seen in everything from: combating unhealthy emotional outbursts, solving chemical dependencies, and improving a person’s overall mental self-image. Foremost, one must understand Rational-Emotive-Behavior-Therapy in order to apply REBT to the above-mentioned modes of use. REBT is a therapy residing in a subdivision of psychological therapies known as Cognitive therapy, or an assumption based therapy relying on the premise that psychological problems are due to maladaptive patterns of thinking (Hockenbury and Hockenbury 523). Gerald Metalsky Ph.D., Associate Professor of Psychology at Wisconsin’s Lawrence University, explains cognitive therapy to be the process of “Identifying deprossogenic thoughts, evaluating these thoughts, and challenging the cognition of these thoughts in

Psychological Effects of Color

2002-03-15T13:00:00-04:00

Color affects every moment of our lives although our color choices are mostly unconscious. Color has a great emotional impact on a person that comes out via the clothes we chose to wear, decorations to fill our homes, personality, foods we choose to eat and many more ways. It is possible to introduce colors to different areas of daily life to give off more energy, soothing affects, stimulate appetites and sexual motivation or even give a place a clean atmosphere. I asked thirty males from the ages of fifteen to sixty what color bra they would like to see their dream girl wearing to find out what colors are the most sexually stimulating. As I predicted, out of thirty, fourteen chose black, while four chose pink, red, blue and white were also chosen by three each and gray and purple were each favored by one person a piece. I also conducted an experiment to see what colors were stimulating on appetites. I added food coloring to make one flavor of Jell-O turn red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, brown, and pink. Out of fifteen total people, seven chose red, purple and pink were chosen by three a piece, and orange and green were chosen by one each. Blue can either be a calming color or a depressing color, depending on how much one is surrounded by. Although, blue most always has a pleasant association. Blue also is associated with a cool, cleansed, relaxed, calm, hopeful, protected, reassuring, trusting and accepting feeling. It inspires mental control, clarity and creativity. Blue has a direct effect on the autonomic nervous system, which helps calm and soothe humans. However, subconsciously it affects us because we associate blue with the night sky, so it makes us feel calm as though we are being soothed by the night sky. On the other hand, dark blue is sedative and too much can give off a feeling of depression. Blue is also an appetite suppressant. This is believed to be that due to the fact that nature does not create a blue food other than blueberries, therefore we do not have an automatic appetite response to blue. Actually, in a decorative perspective, blue is a spacious color that is most suited for deep thought and relief from a stressful, hectic life. If

Global Warming

2002-03-14T13:00:00-04:00

What is global warming, and how is it affecting the Earth and its inhabitants? Global Warming is sometimes referred to as the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is the absorption of energy radiated from the Earth's surface by carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere, causing the atmosphere to become warmer. The greenhouse effect is what is causing the temperature on the Earth to rise, and creating many problems that will begin to occur in the coming decades. For the last 10,000 years, the Earth's climate has been extraordinarily beneficial to mankind. "Humans have prospered tremendously well under a benign atmosphere," (Bates 28). Today, however, major changes are taking place. People are conducting an inadvertent global experiment by changing the face of the entire planet. We are destroying the ozone layer, which allows life to exist on the Earth's surface. All of these activities are unfavorably altering the composition of the biosphere and the Earth's heat balance. If we do not slow down our use of fossil fuels and stop destroying, the forests, the world could become hotter than it has been in the past million years. Average global temperatures have risen 1 degree Fahrenheit over the last century. If carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to spill into the atmosphere, global temperatures could rise five to 10 degrees by the middle of the next century. The warning will be the greatest at the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, with the largest temperature rises occurring in winter. Most areas will experience summertime highs well above 100 degrees Fahrenheit. New temperature records will be set each year. As a possible prelude to global warming, the decade of the 1980's has had the six hottest years of the century (Erandson 18-22). Atmospheric disturbances brought on by the additional warming will produce more violent storms and larger death tolls. Some areas, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, will dry out and a greater occurrence of lightning strikes will set massive forest fires. The charring of the Earth by natural and man-made forest fires will dump additional quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Changes in temperature and rainfall brought on by global warming will in turn change the composition of the forests. At the present rate of destruction, most of the rain forests will be gone by the middle of the next century. This will allow man-made deserts to encroach on

Mania In Bipolar Depression

2002-03-06T13:00:00-05:00

Bipolar depression, also known as bipolar disorder, manic depression and manic-depressive illness, is a form of a depressive illness in which mania and depression alternate. It is a disorder that affects over 2 million (1.2 percent) Americans and usually begins during adolescence (American Medical Association [AMA], 1998). It is often not recognized as a serious disorder, but in many cases it causes difficulty in occupational, educational, social life, and other important functioning. A person who has bipolar disorder swings between two extreme emotional poles- depression and mania. During the depression phase, the person will have the same symptoms as people with severe depression (AMA, 1998). Although the shifts of mood have nothing to do with daily activities, the symptoms may prevent the person from functioning normally. However, the All About Bipolar Disorder webpage (1995-2000), says that "increased stress and inadequate coping mechanisms to deal with that stress may also contribute to the disorder's manifestation." The cycles of mood shifts vary greatly in frequency and length. Some people may have several bouts of mania or depression in a row, some have them simultaneously and some have mania without depression (AMA, 1998). In some cases people never experience euphoria during mania, but go directly to a dysphoric state where their energy is boosted so they feel pressured in an uncomfortable state of mind. In other cases bipolar can have a triphasic characteristic, where there is a brief period of depression, then a sudden swing into mania, then depression will set in again for a few weeks (Mondimore, 1995). Some may have mixed mood states. "In mixed mood states (also referred to as dysphoric mania) pronounced symptoms of both depression and mania either co-exist or alternate during different periods of the day." (Daly, p.1157, 1997). However, typical bipolar patients alternate mania and depression with euthymania (normal mood) in between the two (Gorman, 1998). During the manic phase of bipolar depression a person undergoes changes in mood, distorted thinking and behavior. Euphoria is extremely common early in a manic episode. During mania, irritability is common, and any form of frustration becomes unbearable. Rage may be overwhelming if other try to restrain the manic behaviors. For example, "When you try to inhibit or criticize him, he will get angry, perhaps violent." (Cammer, 1969, p.45). Also, the person may experience a pressure to socialize or a sudden preoccupation with success, wealth, power, and fame (Mondimore, 1995).

Stereotypes: An Interview Essay

2002-03-06T13:00:00-05:00

The other day I had a discussion with my roommate about the social psychological idea of stereotyping. I found it interesting how much I felt like she was contradicting herself. But in my opinion, I do not find it surprising that she did, because I feel like most people at the point in our lives (college students) do try and not prejudge people, but do anyway. When I asked how guilty she felt she was about stereotyping people, she said it depends on what she’s stereotyping, but she does not feel like she does it too much. She also said she does not feel like she belongs in a particular social group and she also feels like there are exceptions in some stereotypical groups. For example, if there were a group of black guys standing on the street, some people would automatically assume that they were up to no good. But my roommate feels like if she saw this group with one of the guys dressed nicely, she could point him out as one exception – the one who would probably not be doing any harm. When I asked if she treats people differently right away because of how she has prejudged them, she answered that she does not treat them differently and that she tries not to prejudge at all. However, she does pick out a stereotypical group for a stranger before she meets them, a lot of times, and they do normally end up being what she expects. This proves the theory of the self- fulfilling prophecy to be correct. Whereas some people still tend to put some people they do know as well as strangers into stereotypical groups, my roommate does not. She said once she gets to know someone, on the acquaintance level, she does not stereotype them as much and does not really feel that they belong to a certain groups such as the “preps” or the “jocks.” And she also feels that getting to know the person does have an effect on how she feels because “the more I get to know them, the less I stereotype them.” When I asked if she thought any groups should have a higher self esteem because of what group they seem to be placed with (i.e. “snobs” or “nerds”), she said no, as long as each person is doing everything they can do to keep their lives running

Hydroponics

2002-03-05T13:00:00-05:00

I decided to research Hydroponics, which is the growing of plants without soil in water to which nutrients have been added. Hydroponics has been used for over a century as a research technique, but not until 1929 were experiments conducted solely to determine its feasibility for growing commercial crops. There are now hydroponic home gardens and commercial cropping operations in the United States and many other countries. Under hydroponics, plants can be grown closer together than in the field, thereby increasing yields, and multiple cropping (the growing of several crops in the same tank) can be practiced. In addition to conserving space, hydroponics almost eliminates weed and pest problems. The cost of equipment is high and personnel must be trained. There are 6 basic types of hydroponic systems: Wick, Water Culture, Ebb and Flow (Flood & Drain), Drip (recovery or non-recovery), N.F.T. (Nutrient Film Technique) and Aeroponic. There are hundreds of variations on these basic types of systems, but all hydroponic methods are a variation (or combination) of these six. Below I will briefly describe them, and how they function. The Wick system is by far the simplest type of hydroponic system. This is a passive system, which means there are no moving parts. The nutrient solution is drawn into the growing medium (which is the matter, surrounding the roots) from the reservoir with a wick. This system can use a variety of growing medium. Perlite, Vermiculite, Pro-Mix and Coconut Fiber are the ones that I founds that people recommended on their websites. The only set back that I found with this system is that the plants that are large or use large amounts of water may use up the nutrient solution faster than the wick(s) can supply it, thus not delivering a fully nourished plant. The second method that I found is the water culture system. It was the simplest of all active hydroponic systems that I found. The platform that holds the plants is usually made of Styrofoam and floats directly on the nutrient solution. An air pump supplies air to the air stone that bubbles the nutrient solution and supplies oxygen to the roots of the plants. Water culture is the system of choice for growing leaf lettuce, which are fast growing water-loving plants. The one drawback with this system is that very few plants other than lettuce will do well in this type of system. The biggest

Lemurs

2002-03-05T13:00:00-05:00

Lemurs, meaning ghosts, are primates that are found only on the island of Madagascar. They can weigh up too eight pounds. Their tails can be up to 25 inches long. And can live up to 15 years. There are 40 different species of lemurs. They are all different in ways. Some are nocturnal, while others hunt during the day. Some live on the ground and the others live in trees. Even though lemurs are different from each other they have stuff in common too. They are all good climbers with good grasping abilities. They

Ferroelectric Molecular Optical Storage Nanatechnology

2002-03-04T13:00:00-05:00

The patents protect a new and unique method for a semiconductor integrated read/write head using a high-k dielectric ferroelectric (perovskite - photonic crystal) optical data storage fedisk. There are no Random Infinite Read/Write Holographic Disk / Tape drive products on the world market. Colossal's patents will protect and propel the company into creating the next industrial revolution which will be lead by new innovative storage technology markets. By being the first in the world, Colossal wants to set the direction of the world's future 3 D Volume fedisk,

Tanks, the evolution of tank technology

2002-03-03T13:00:00-05:00

Ever since the introduction of the tank into modern ground combat, it has been a bold symbol of armies of all countries. Its beginnings based on that of a farm tractor, the tank now looms large over battlefields as a worthy foe, and is in many cases the backbone of most modern day ground maneuvers. The tank was first developed by the British and the French during World War I. These tanks were very slow (road speed was about 5 mph) and were used only for infantry protection. Although they had some success in the battlefield, they failed to penetrate German lines. After World War I the Germans used the inter-war period to develop tank technology and tactics. The results of their efforts showed in the Blitzkriegs of 1939 in Poland and of 1940 in France. The tactics involved using newer, faster models of tanks that operated as a single unit, instead of just as a shield for infantry. In 1943 the Russians turned the tables at the Battle of Kursk, at the time the largest tank battle in history where almost 4,000 Russian tanks stopped a German offensive of more than 2,000 tanks. This battle was a turning point in the war as it ended the German offensive capability in the East. Its status as the largest tank battle in history lasted until 1973, when the Israeli army counterattacked against the Egyptian offensive in the Sinai during the Yom Kippur War. Interesting about this battle was the fact that the Egyptians used Russian tank tactics involving massed maneuver, while the Israelis used essentially the German blitzkrieg technique, which emphasized single-unit maneuver. The Israelis won this battle. Most recently the tank dominated in Desert Storm where United States tanks once again proved that maneuverability is more useful than massing, and the Western tanks proved dominate over the Russian. The tank has developed in many different areas since its introduction during World War I. The speed, range, lethality, survivability, and the ability to communicate with or control a tank on the battlefield have all improved greatly, but there haven’t only been advancements in actual tanks when it comes to this kind of warfare. Anti-tank warfare has also seen great improvements in many of the same areas like weapon range and lethality. One of the most remarkable areas of improvements has been that of speed. During World War I where tanks first saw battle,

Human Origins

2002-03-02T13:00:00-05:00

Many people have different views regarding the same topic. Over the years, countless theories have been brought forward to answer the question of human origins. Scientists, archaeologists, anthropologists and religious groups have spent lots of time arguing in support of their own respected theories. With the use of technology such as carbon dating and improvements in scientific methods; new fossil evidence has traced humanities bipedalism back to five million years, shedding some light on humanities past. Conversely, these new fossil finds have only led to more controversy. The church also has a set view on human origins and it differs very much from that of scientists. The theories of Johanson, Leakey and the church can tell us a lot about human origins. While working Hadar near the Afar region in Ethiopia in 1974, Donald Johanson made one very controversial archaeological find. This was 40% of an Australopithecus skeleton that he decided to name Lucy. At this time Lucy was known as the oldest hominid. Her teeth structure indicated that she was in her mid twenties and her knee joint and pelvis indicated that she was an upright walker, similar to those of a modern woman. Contrary to other species of the time, Lucy had a very small brain, practically the size of a small chimpanzee, the smallest out of any other hominids discovered at that time. A few years after, in 1975, Johanson and his colleague Tim White returned to that same region and uncovered ‘the First Family’, this was four children and nine adult males and females. For more than two years White and Johanson and White studied the fossils they brought back from the site. Previously, White had worked with Mary Leakey who had found 3 sets of fossilized hominids in Laetoli; White found that the Johanson fossils and the Leaky fossils were similar in date and nature. White convinced Johanson that the two were from the same species and a new species; Australopithecus afarensis was named in 1979. Johanson believed that all homos evolved from Australopithecus afarensis; he concluded that they were the only hominids living before three million years. Johanson assumed that between three and two million years ago, Afarensis lived all over Africa, then evolved into different species such as the africanus, robustus and boisei. After a while all those species went extinct, except for the afarensis in the east, which evolved into Homo habilis

Technology's Effect on the Acquisition of Knowledge

2002-02-28T13:00:00-05:00

For a class called 'Theory of Knowledge.' As I walked into my younger brother’s elementary school one day to pick him up, I was confronted with a flurry of sounds; it was nothing new, this was just the first time that I noticed it. All I heard was the buzzing of computers, the ringing or phones and the humming of printers. The same at my school, my parents’ workplaces, and nearly every other public place, as well as some private places. Then I began to wonder if all of these technological advances really help, or rather hinder, how we gather information from the world around us. Do these smaller and faster computers, these increasingly tiny cellular phones, or any of these other recent technological inventions really expand the acquisition of knowledge? Or are we just moving backwards? First of all, I think that we need to define technology. My definition, as well as the definition that I will use to determine whether something is technology, is any device that makes life easier for the people who possess and use it. One of the most obvious ways is that now it is a lot easier to access knowledge. You can research any topic and access statistics and primary documents. You have got the world at your fingertips. I, as an International Baccalaureate student, cannot imagine writing papers or researching any issue without access to the Internet. Another example of technology that helps most people is the calculator. I cannot even imagine trying to do Calculus homework without its help. With the aid of the calculator, you need not look up or calculate by hand values such as logarithm, sine or cosine…it is just beyond me how they did complicated math like that before everyone had calculators. Another advantage is that, if you have Internet access at home, you have access to seemingly endless information twenty-four hours a day and seven days a week; anytime you want to learn something about any theme, you can. Even devices such as overhead projectors and loudspeakers make access to knowledge easier. Also, as technology progresses, computers get more affordable, along with other learning tools, thus they become available to more people. There is also more information. Examples include movies, photos, audio devices and other entertainment that was not available before. There is also more scientific equipment that allows us to collect more information about the world such

Tree Free Paper

2002-02-21T13:00:00-05:00

Eventually, at the current rate of deforestation, there will be no trees. We must look for alternatives to wood fibers. I for one would not like see the day that money hungry business man cut down the last tree for such a now useless object such as paper. Nowadays, with computers, there is no need for paper other than for printing. Paper use can be seriously decreased if we would just accept computers as a superior alternative to paper. If we would start using more Palm Pilot like devices and use laptops instead of paper at school, deforestation would most likely not exist. Perhaps, more trees would be planted rather than being chopped down. Using computers is just one alternative, there are many more which most people are unaware of. Some of the biggest examples of alternatives to paper other than the use of electronic devices are to use substances similar to wood fibers that can be used to create paper. Major newspapers are experimenting with the use of non-wood fibers as well widely known companies such as Sony. Kinko’s, perhaps the most popular place to make copies, allows you to make copies on non-wood paper. There are two categories of alternatives to paper excluding electronic devices, one is to use crops and the other is to use Agricultural waste. The most popular crop solution is a plant called kenaf. It is an annual crop meaning that it only grows once a year and it can reach heights of 12-18 feet within five months. Kenaf is the most popular choice, but I don’t see why agricultural waste is not more popular. There are 160 million tons of agricultural waste produced every year and 30 million tons of paper sold in a typical year. That’s 30 million tons of waste which could be use more efficiently rather than taking up more space on this planet. Agricultural waste provides more opportunities and less challenge. South pine fibers are the best choice of wood to create paper. Up to 5x more paper can be produced using south pine rather than the wood being used now. From the numerous amounts of alternatives to destroying this planet, humans might still not notice that there could be alternatives that can actually help this planet. The major factor in the acceptance of these alternatives is the rate of acceptance for people. If everybody would start using paper made from kenaf

Internet for Dummies

2002-02-21T13:00:00-05:00

The Internet is a huge network of computers spanning the lengths of this planet and is now started to bring in the surrounding area like space. Some computers share data like servers, others just surf the web as clients downloading the data. Public Internet began in the late 70’s, but that’s not what I’m going to teach you. In the 70’s, web surfers used an interface called telnet, but now that program is mainly obsolete. Telnet is most widely deployed in accessing college email accounts. The Internet is very helpful because it’s a huge database of knowledge, from the pictures of family trips to an in-depth analysis of quantum mechanics. Everyone should have the Internet because of its near instantaneous communication and huge wealth of knowledge, which deserves to be, at the disposal of everyone. Today, I will show you the four steps of how to go on the Internet and do a search for those new to the concept of a computer. First, start by turning on your computer. In most computers, you can press a button, and it turns on. There should be two buttons on the front panel of your computer so just press both. If you hear a strange sound when you release one of the buttons, note that it’s the on/off buttons and don’t press the other. Now, turn on the monitor. In the second step, you should be in a program called windows. It is merely a friendly interface working on the DOS operating system. Look around on your monitor, and locate an icon that says Internet Explorer or Netscape. Using your mouse, maneuver the cursor over one of those previously stated icons and double it quickly with the left button of your mouse. In the third step, wait while the program loads and then look around. If you have a broadband connection (DSL or higher), then you should be connected to the Internet. If not, then you have to setup and connect to your dial-up service. Look around the screen for something that says, "http://" and put your cursor over it. Then press the left button on the mouse. Now type in the desired URL and press enter. Finally, if you want to do a search for data on the Internet, type in the website http://www.google.com. This URL will bring you to a site called Google. It is a very popular and informational network of sites

The Biology and Operation of a Septic System

2002-02-09T13:00:00-05:00

Introduction to Septic Systems

The septic system is a grouping of components working together to decompose household waste water. The septic tank holds the waste and breaks the organic compounds into a solid, liquid or gas. The solid waste (called sludge) settles to the bottom of the tank and must periodically be removed. The liquid waste is flushed to the distribution box and is then allowed to drain into the ground through a series of perforated pipes (often called lines or a leach field). Gases follow the same path as liquids and eventually rise through the soil and enter the atmosphere. Tanks can be arranged in series for additional waste treatment. Many older systems have no distribution mechanism.

The Septic Tank Layers or Horizons

Wastewater flows through a pipe into the septic tank. Baffles or "tees" at the inlet and outlet of the tank slows the flow of water and prevents sewage from flowing directly through the tank. Bacterial action within a septic tank helps to break down the solids in the wastewater. The tank must be large enough, and the rate of flow small enough, to ensure sufficient "residence time" of wastewater within the tank. The solids which cannot be broken down sink to the bottom of the tank and accumulate as sludge. Grease, foam, and lighter particles float to the surface and form a layer of scum. The exit baffle holds back sludge and scum while allowing a partially digested wastewater to flow out of the tank. This picture depicts the three layers within the septic tank. Anything that floats rises to the top and forms a layer known as the scum layer. Anything heavier than water sinks to form the sludge layer. In the middle is a fairly clear water layer. This body of water contains bacteria and chemicals like nitrogen and phosphorous that act as fertilizers, but it is largely free of solids.

Organic Substances

The concentration of natural and synthetic compounds in effluent are generally expressed in terms of:

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), the measure of how much oxygen is required to finish digesting the organic material left in the effluent.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), the measure of how much oxygen is required to finish the decomposion of chemicals.

Total Suspended Solid Content (TST)

Total phosphorus and nitrogen - measures the nutrients remaining in the water A properly designed and maintained septic tank removes most of the organic substances from raw wastewater. Additional removal

GPS - From Stones to Satellites

2002-02-09T13:00:00-05:00

The Stone Age

In the early days of man, navigation was composed remembering objects as fixed points of reference. Leaving a trial of stones, marking trees and referencing mountains are examples of primitive navigational aids. The principles of this kind of navigation has evolved and is even present in today?s sophisticated navigational aids.

The Star Age (Trigonometry)

Identifying points of reference on land was easy. However, man started to explore the oceans where the only points of reference were the sun, the moon and the stars. Naturally they became points of reference and celestial navigation began. The position of stars and their geometrical arrangement looks different at different positions on the earth. Therefore, by observing the configuration of stars, one could estimate his position. For better accuracy special optical instruments were invented to measure the angles between stars. The data was then transferred to special charts where a position could be calculated. However, measuring angles with stars was limited to clear nights and only accurate to several miles.

Radio Age (Distance = Velocity X Time)

Around the middle of the century, scientists found a way to measure distances using radio signals. The basic concept is simple and works by using the relationship between distance, speed (around the speed of light for radio signals), and time. Accurate measurement of the signals time is important since on microsecond (one millionth of a second) equals 300m. Below is how a radio receiver/transmitter (LORAN system) calculates ones position The exact location of point A is programmed into a special radio receiver. The receiver when turned on measures the distance from the transmitter as 1000m. However, this does not tell us where we are but rather narrows our location to any point on a 1000m circle around the tower as shown in Figure 1. Next assume that a second radio tower B is programmed into the receiver. The receiver when turned on measures the distance to tower B at 750m. Now we have two pieces of information: our distance to point A is1000m and our distance to point B is750m. So we are on circle A and circle B at the same time. Therefore we must be at the intersection of the two circles, one of the two points P or Q shown in Figure 2. Measuring our distance to a third radio tower C would identify exactly where we are. Transmitters A, B, and C together are called a transmitter "chain". A chain

Artificial Intelligence

2002-02-07T13:00:00-05:00

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the branch of computer science concerned with programming computers to exhibit intelligent behavior (oxford dictionary). In an age where the threat of warfare is not out of the question it is not surprising that a lot of advances have been made in the field of military AI. With this increased demand for more intelligent, more dependable programs, algorithms, and expert systems to run these robots, it is obvious that the field of robotic studies is very important. Work on AI began in the 1950's with researchers wanting to use a computer to model the way a human thinks. This new field quickly took off, but had its difficulties due to the inability to produce anything that really resembled human intelligence. Eighteen years ago Marvin Minsky would have been called crazy for stating that AI is the newest and most advance type of technology. These days, Minsky, and the theory of AI is the most respected field of research. What is intelligence? The best way to try and describe what intelligence is to list some features that we would expect an intelligent being to have. Speech, the ability to make ones own decisions, to have emotions, Etc, these are all characteristics of an intelligent being. With the co-ordination of Minsky and the Military, they have been able to harness this intelligence and center it into a highly advanced computer system allowing for the largest leap in reaching the closest step in reaching Artificial Intelligence. Over the years, the ever increasing and expanding research on Artificial Intelligence, particularly in the field of Military defense, has seen the development and implementation of many commercial and industrial applications that utilize the link between the theory of AI and the military. The advances in the military has seen the development of expert missiles, combat training and highly advanced weaponry. However all these systems hold a great weight on their ability to make a large impact on the increase of world safety. This is why the development of AI and the implementation of human-like qualities has finally been used, to increase the intelligence of a “computer” to have its own responses. Robotics is the first and probably the most advanced way to harness AI. Generation 5 is the most advanced military based robot to come out of the research on Artificial Intelligence by the military. Generation 5 stands for the fifth step in the

Evolution

2002-02-05T13:00:00-05:00

Evolution is "an unpredictable and natural process of temporal descent with genetic modification that is affected by natural selection, chance, historical contingencies and changing environments." Humans evolved from apes because of their similarities. This can be shown in the evidence

What is Anger?

2002-02-04T13:00:00-05:00

What is anger, an emotion, a response, or a way of life? In some cases all three may be a reality. According to Charles Spielberger, PhD, anger is "an emotional state that varies in intensity from mild irritation to intense fury and rage". It's that feeling of your blood boiling, the heat of your body rising steadily until you think you may explode. Your head popping right off of your body and shooting like a rocket into space! Although this is an exageration, why do we feel this way sometimes? The biological reason for anger is quite simple, it is our body's way of preparing us for fight or flight. The body uses anger to fight for survival. our heart rate increases, blood pressure rises, and the levels of our energy hormones, adrenaline and noradrenaline, heighten. Other reasons for anger vary by individual. In recent years, traffic and other drivers have made some people so angry, we have coined the term "road rage". Other people become so disgusted by the slow and leisurely pace of your walk at the mall that they scurry around you and grunt as if you've violated some sort of implied mall speed limit. Upon answering the phone while writing this paper I was greeted by a young lady conducting a survey. With no end in sight to this barrage of questions about frozen chicken, I could feel my anger growing after 10 minutes. I even considered hanging up on the poor girl. Why did I get so angry? Maybe I felt my time was far more valuable than her time. That can't be true though, we are both human beings. What makes my time or me as a person any better than this woman? I felt she was wasting my time, after all, I did have a paper to write. After having this converstion with myself, I realized she was just trying to make a living. In the end, I completed her survey and she was extremely gracious. I got the feeling I was her first completed survey for that day. In order to quell my anger, I had to stop and think. Why was I getting upset? Was it really such a problem for me to take 20 minutes of my precious time to help someone do their job? There are several ways to deal with anger when it rears its' ugly head. One is to

James Russell and the Invention of the Compact Disc

2002-01-20T13:00:00-05:00

James Russell was born in Bremerton, Washington in 1931. His first invention, at six years old, was a remote-control battleship with a storage chamber for his lunch. In 1953, he earned his Bachelor of Arts in physics and graduated from Reed College in Portland. Afterwards he went to work as a Physicist in General Electric’s nearby labs in Richland, Washington. There he started many experimental instrumentation projects. He was one of the first to use a color TV screen and keyboard with a computer. He designed and built the first electron beam welder. When Bettelle Memorial Institute opened its Pacific Northwest Laboratory in Richland, Washington, James joined as a Senior Scientist. There he introduced his thinking about optical data storage, constructing prototypes of a digital-to-optical recording and playback system and dispersing information about the potential of this technology. He found more interest in this work outside of the company though, so he joined a firm and developed his ideas as vice president for research and member of the board. Here he designed the system architecture for an audio player and directed the development of the hardware and the storage media. During this time, James listened to a lot of music and was always frustrated by the wear and tear of his phonograph records. He was also unsatisfied with their sound quality. So, one Saturday while he was home alone, he started sketching out a better music recording system. James wanted a system that would record and replay songs without physical contact between its parts, and he saw the best way to do it would be by using light. He was familiar with digital data recording, in punch card or magnetic tape form. He knew that if you could represent the binary 0 and 1 with dark and light a device could read sounds or any other information without wearing it out and if he could make the binary compact enough he could store a bunch on a small piece of film. Bettelle let him pursue his project and in 1970, after years of work, he succeeded in inventing the first digital-to-optical recording and playback system, the CD. A CD is a simple round piece of plastic about 4/100ths of an inch thick, and 12 centimeters in diameter used for electronic recording, storing, and playback. Most of a CD consists of an injection-molded piece of clear polycarbonate plastic. During manufacturing, this plastic is

Pharmacology

2002-01-16T13:00:00-05:00

The word pharmacology comes from the Greek word for drug, pharmakon. Pharmacology deals with the actions of drugs on the body, development and testing of new drugs, and new uses of existing drugs. It uses the knowledge of chemical properties and biological effects to determine the uses and reactions of the drugs. Although many drugs are made from plants and animals, pharmacologists try to create synthetic versions based on their chemical structure. Pharmacology combines many sciences together including biology and chemistry. A Bachelor of Science in pharmacology is needed to do technical jobs while a pharmacologist with a Master's Degree can work as a technologist or do independent research. A pharmamcologist's salary is determined by their education. With a Master's degree they can earn, on average, between $30, 000 and $40,000. With a Ph.D. they can earn, on average, between $35,000 and $55,000. An experienced researcher can earn over $60,000. A drug is a chemical that effects living organisms whether through medicinal purposes (acetylsalicylic acid), everyday substances (caffeine), or illegal substances (marijuana). The active ingredients are usually mixed with nonactive ingredients to make it easier to take in. Acetylsalicylic acid, also known as aspirin, is an everyday drug used to relieve pain. The molecular formula is C9H8O4. The molecular weight is 180.16 newtons. Because we know what the molecular formula is, we can determine what will react and what won't inside the body. Aspirin is incompatible with strong oxidizing agents, strong bases, strong acids, various other compounds such as iodides, iron salts, quinine salts, etc. With knowledge of this, it makes the job of determining new and safer uses of drugs easier to find. To help pharmacologists develop drugs they need the assistance of computers to help them determine the molecular modeling of the drugs. The action of the drug is related to it's chemical structure and small changes in the structure can affect the drug's action. Many synthetic drugs have been produced after determining it 's chemical structure. Synthetic drugs are useful because it's gives the researchers a way to find ways of making a drug with less side effects, including acetaminophen and ibuprofen. Pharmacology deals with many other sciences and is a very demanding job. There is always room for improvement but a pharmacologist's work is never complete. There is always another cure or treatment for a disease or virus to be found. Pharmacologists must use their knowledge of chemistry

Depression

2001-12-23T13:00:00-05:00

Depression is a chronic mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and irritability. Many people do not realized that depression is a disease, it’s a real medical disorder where changes occur in the brain, and they have medicine that helps correct these imbalances. Depression has been described as a “whole-body illness” because it doesn’t only affect the person’s mood but can affect every aspect of a person’s life. Depression is an illness, not a state of mind or a weakness. Depression is caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain, but there are also other factors that may play a role as well, such as: environment - a significant loss, a difficult relationship or financial problems all produce stress. The body, by secreting extra amounts of certain hormones persisting for a long time, can produce changes in the brain actually killing some of the nerve cells. psychological - peoples whose personalities involve pessimistic thinking, low self-esteem and excessive worrying are more likely to develop depression. Genetics could also play a part - parents, siblings and children of depressed people are four times more likely to get depressed than a non-relative. Depression can affect anyone, any age. Even infants can become depressed, and may even die when they receive only a limited amount of human contact. Out of the estimated 17.6 million Americans suffering from depression each year, 1.5 million are children under eighteen. In teens depression is sometimes masked, shown in different ways like drugs, alcohol use, trouble in school, at home or with the law, withdrawal from social activities and sulkiness, grouchiness, and over-sensitivity. Sadness may be shown by wearing black clothes, writing poetry with morbid themes or music with nihilistic themes. Sleep disturbances may be shown by watching television all night, difficulty in getting up for school, or sleeping during the day. Lack of motivation and lowered energy level is reflected by missed classes. Getting lower grades than usual can show loss of concentration and slowed thinking. Boredom could also be a sign of depression in teens, loss of appetite may become anorexia or bulimia. Depression can appear to come out of nowhere, or it can be triggered by a life event such as the death of ones mother or the divorce of ones parents. According to the American Psychiatric Association, someone is depressed when loss of interest or pleasure in almost all activities, or feelings of sadness last without relief for at

Water Pollution

2001-12-23T13:00:00-05:00
Water pollution occurs mostly when people overload the water environment with wastes. It’s defined as contamination of streams, lakes, underground water, bays or oceans by substances harmful to living things. Water is necessary to life on earth. All organisms contain it, some drink it, some live in it. Plants and animals require water that is moderately pure, and they cannot survive if their water is loaded with toxic chemicals or harmful microorganisms. If severe, water pollution can kill large numbers of fish, birds, and other animals, in some cases killing all members of a species in an affected area. Pollution makes streams, lakes, and coastal waters unpleasant to look at, to smell, and to swim in. Fish and shellfish harvested from polluted waters may be unsafe to eat. People who ingest polluted water can become ill and if they’re exposed for a long time, may develop cancers, or have children with birth defects. There are two types of water pollution; point source and nonpoint source. Point sources of pollution occur when harmful substances are put directly into a body of water (such as an oil spill). A nonpoint source is when pollutants enter the water indirectly through environmental changes (like when fertilizer is carried into a stream by rain) The major water pollutants are chemical, biological, and physical materials that lessen the water quality. Pollutants can be separated into eight different classes:
Petroleum Products - oil and chemicals from oil are used for fuel, lubrication, plastics manufacturing, and many other purposes. The petroleum products get into water by accidental spills from ships, tanker trucks, and leaky underground storage tanks. Many petroleum products are poisonous if ingested by animals and spilled oil damages the feathers of birds and the fur of animals, often causing death.
Pesticides and Herbicides - chemicals used to kill unwanted animals and plants may be carried into streams by rainwater. The chemicals in these that are not biodegradable can remain dangerous for a long time. When an animal eats a plant that’s been treated with certain non-degradable chemicals, the chemicals are absorbed into the tissues or the organs of the animals. When other animals feed on a contaminated animal, the chemicals are passed up to them. As it goes up through the food chain, the chemical becomes more harmful, so animals at the top of the food chains may suffer cancers, reproductive problems, and death. More than 14 million Americans drink water contaminated

Down syndrome and Spina Bifida - cause, effects and treatment

2001-12-10T13:00:00-05:00
Many individuals are born with defects due to genetic factors. Some such defects occur because the child inherits a defective gene, or genes from the parents. Others are caused through mutations- spontaneous changes that occur to a gene or chromosome. Environmental factors affecting the foetus during the uterine development may also cause defects. If, during pregnancy, a woman smokes, consumes alcohol or other drugs, or suffers dietary deficiencies, the developing foetus may be adversely affected. About one in every seven hundred births is Down syndrome baby. Down syndrome is now more frequently referred to as trisomy- 21, as new individuals with the disorder have three of the chromosome numbers twenty-one. Characteristics of a baby with Downs Syndrome include a small, round head with a large tongue and a broad skull; a short stature and stubby fingers; malformation of the heart, ears, hands and feet; and mental retardation. Sexual maturity is rarely attained. The risk of having a child with Down syndrome increases sharply if a woman is reaching the end of her child-bearing period. For women aged over 45 or over the risk is around one in fifty, whereas for women in their middle reproductive years- around 20-35 years- the risk is only about one in a hundred. Down syndrome can be detected in cells taken from the amniotic fluid of a pregnant woman, in a procedure called amniocentesis. Women having children late in life are strongly advised to have such a test. If the condition is detected early in the pregnancy, the parents have the option of a therapeutic abortion, whereas such practices are legal. About two in every thousand babies born in Australia have a neural tube defect and about half of these have spina bifida. Spina bifida occurs when the vertebrae of the spinal column fail to form a complete bony arch around the spinal cord. In about fifty percent of cases it is the lower back region of the spine that is affected. In serious cases, the coverings of the spinal cord and the wall of the spinal cavity itself may protrude, resulting in the opening of the neural canal to the exterior. Surgery to repair this is condition often results in paralysis of the lower limbs and associated lack of control of bowel and bladder functions. In less severe cases the spinal deformity may be small, and when it is repaired the child is able to walk and

Critically evaluate the role of sympathy and empathy in the study of prosocial behaviour

2001-12-05T13:00:00-05:00
Prosocial behaviour is primarily linked to theories and ideas of helping. It is described as the interaction between helpers and recipients (Hewstone & Stroebe, 2001). Prosocial behaviour can be understood as behaviour that has social consequences that can contribute positively to the well being of another person (Wispe, 1972 cited by Malim & Birch, 1998). The consequence of prosocial behaviour is of benefit to others, therefore, this essay will examine the role of sympathy and empathy in the study of behaviour in helping situations. The value and success - of helping - to the individual will be assessed, as well as positive and negative regards to empathy and sympathy. This essay will begin by expanding on the definition of prosocial behaviour already given, before discussing sympathy and empathy in-depth. The essay will also discuss social explanations for helping and show how empathy is related. It will then discuss a theory of empathy and prosocial behaviour, aspects of which should have been touched on throughout. The conclusion will sum up the author's argument, and there will be evidence and examples throughout the essay. As previously stated, prosocial behaviour is connected to helping. It is encouraged in cultures where extended families are standard - e.g. India - and where there are greater responsibilities but a simpler social structure (Eisenberg & Musen, 1989 cited by Kaplan, 1998). These are generally collectivist societies - which make up about seventy percent of the world's population. Cultures emphasising community rather than individualism are more likely to produce people of a prosocial and conformist nature (Stevenson, 1991 cited by Kaplan, 1998). Those who grow up in rural areas are also more likely to be prosocial than those from urban areas (Eisenberg & Musen, 1989 cited by Kaplan, 1998). Prosocial behaviour is also voluntary but can be egotistically motivated - ultimately benefiting oneself- or altruistically motivated - benefiting another person (Brehm et al, 1999; Hewstone & Stroebe, 2001). Altruistic behaviour: a refined form of prosocial behaviour: is characterised by empathy and perspective-taking (Hewstone & Stroebe, 2001). Prosocial behaviour will increase with age (Durkin, 1995 & Peterson, 1983 cited by Kaplan, 1998), as people become better at considering others' perspectives (Kaplan, 1998) - empathising more (Eisenberg et al, 1996 cited by Kaplan, 1998). This shows that the role of empathy in studying prosocial behaviour is key. Empathy is defined as the ability to understand the feelings of another (Soanes, 2001; www.infoplease.com). Sympathy

Alternative Methods of Pest Control

2001-11-28T13:00:00-05:00
It was early morning, October 23, 1999 in Taucamarca, Peru. A farmer had prepared the milk powder for the school children’s breakfast. He was unaware of the fact that he had accidentally mixed a small amount of a pesticide into the milk powder. The farmer intended to use the pesticide to kill rats and stray dogs. Meanwhile, the last stragglers arrived at school and a group of children brought in the bag of powder to make up their morning meal. The older children mixed the milk powder, and when it was ready, everyone sat down to eat. Half an hour later, as they started their lessons, some of the children began to vomit. Desks were pushed over as others had convulsions, and the small schoolroom became a nightmare. Pesticide use is a significant global issue today because almost three million tons of pesticides are currently used worldwide, and wherever there is farming, there is pesticide use. Pesticides, which include bactericides, baits, fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, lures, rodenticides, and repellents, are any substances or mixtures of substances used to destroy, suppress or alter the life cycle of any pest. They work by physically, chemically or biologically interfering with a pest’s metabolism or normal behavior. Pesticides also have an extensive history with the use of first-generation pesticides, derived from minerals and plants, dating back to 500 BC when sulfur was used to control pests. Second-generation pesticides, developed in laboratories, initiated from the creation of dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane. Helping to prevent malaria, it quickly became the world’s most popular pesticide. Entomologist Paul Mueller, its creator, even won a Nobel Prize for its discovery in 1948. Although some agricultural experts oppose implementation of alternative methods of pest control because food production will sharply decrease, alternative means of controlling pests should be implemented because food production will be maintained, drinking water safety will be improved, and overall human and animal health will be improved. Of course, as information indicates, some agricultural experts oppose implementation of alternative methods of pest control because food production will sharply decrease. Mike Holcombe, author of the article entitled “Methyl Bromide—a Not-So-Slow March into Oblivion,” suggests that many people see the loss of pesticides as devastating, and there are no one-for-one replacements for them. He continues by stating that Methyl Bromide was given a congressional extension to be phased out in the year 2005 instead of 2001 because agriculture in the United States, the breadbasket to

The True Hacker: A Distortion of Reality

2001-11-16T13:00:00-05:00
Over the years, to this date, the media has distorted the definition of a hacker. It has been morphed and demonized to someone who terrorizes cyberspace. However, the true hacker is someone who seeks knowledge and information. When hackers hack into systems or networks, it is to explore an operating system that is foreign to them. The younger generations have bred a new philosophy of hacking. Wannabe hackers who do not deserve the title “hacker” use simple utilities available over the Internet to hack into personal computers or banks and cause havoc. This is due because they have no respect for the unwritten hacker code and ethics. Those superficial hackers who use their knowledge to harm other operating systems or use their experience to gain material wealth have blemished the integrity of the hackers of the world. A true hacker is not like your ordinary person. Hackers are distinctively different than your average and boring citizen. They do not settle for what the rest of the world is following or brainwashed into doing. Hackers thrive off curiosity, and have an unsatisfying hunger for knowledge. The word impossible or access denied does not exist in a hacker’s vocabulary. They can access anything and everything that is kept in a computer; particularly when a price has been placed on knowledge and information. Why should only a select few have leisure of knowing what the rest of the public does not? Knowledge is and should always remain free. A hacker will share his knowledge, encourage it to be reproduced and distributed. Hacking is a skill that takes years and years and tons of practice to achieve. A hacker’s qualifications are based on qualifications and performance. Prejudice is non-existent, a person’s title such as degree or position means nothing over the Internet. Discrimination is impossible, hackers are judged on how much they achieved in the quest for knowledge. Hackers have ethics, contrary to what the media has portrayed. Hackers do not plant viruses, (biggest myth) they do not steal. However certain hackers who misuse their abilities to steal are not classified as true hackers, because knowledge in itself is its own reward. Hackers do not cause corruption nor destroy systems or networks. A real hacker’s purpose is to explore foreign material. The most common cliché is “Using your knowledge to increase your knowledge.” But nowhere in the process is it said to gain material wealth

Environmentally Friendly Alternatives To The Combustion Engine

2001-11-11T13:00:00-05:00
In the past decade there has been a great deal of worrying about what will happen when the world’s oil supply becomes depleted. The main reason for concern is that almost all of the automobiles in use now require an oil based gasoline to run their internal-combustion engines. In the next few decades it is predicted that all of the world’s oil will have already been mined, and combustion engines will be unable to function. For this reason many companies such as Ford, Mercedes-Benz, Chrysler, Toyota, BMW, and others have started to create engines that do not require oil based gasoline. Such engines include the battery-powered engine and the hydrogen-powered engine. These engines require different fuels and all have an adverse affect on the environment. The battery-powered engine is more efficient than the combustion engine for a variety of reasons. One reason includes how the electric motor is directly connected to the wheels; this lets the vehicle consume no energy while the car is at rest or coasting. Another way the battery engine is more efficient than the combustion engine is the fact that the battery engine converts more than 90 percent of the storage cell energy into driving force, while the combustion engine converts only a mere 25 percent of the energy in a liter of gasoline into driving force. Also, by owning a battery powered automobile, you won’t have to refuel at the nearest gas pump. You can conveniently refuel your car at your own home without all of the hassle. Primarily hydrogen cells fuel the hydrogen-powered engine. The fuel cells inside the engine use the hydrogen to generate electricity to power the vehicle. The engine uses the hydrogen to power the car in a very unique way. The hydrogen, along with oxygen is brought into opposite sides of the fuel cell. A plastic membrane separates the two. A metallic coating on the plastic membrane acts as a catalyst to separate the hydrogen electron from its proton. The free hydrogen electron follows the electrical circuit to the oxygen on the other side of the fuel cell. On its way around the circuit, it powers an electric motor that powers the car. The remaining charged hydrogen proton is pulled through tiny pores in the plastic membrane to join with the oppositely charged oxygen which together form water vapor. Water vapor is the only exhaust the hydrogen engine emits. The hybrid-electric

Anemia

2001-11-11T13:00:00-05:00
Anemia is a disease of the blood. Anemia is characterized by a deficiency in red blood cells or in the concentration of hemoglobin in the body. These deficiencies are caused by either decreased production or increased destruction of blood cells. Anemia is most common among women in their reproductive years, infants, and the elderly. Because one of the major functions of red blood cells is to transport oxygen, a decrease in red blood cells decreases the amount of oxygen delivered to the body's tissues, which results in the symptoms of anemia. Iron deficiency anemia is the most common form of anemia. Approximately 20% of women, 50% of pregnant women, and 3% of men are iron deficient. Iron is an essential component of hemoglobin. Iron is normally obtained through the food in the diet and by the recycling of iron from old red blood cells. High-risk groups include: women of child-bearing age who have blood loss through menstruation; pregnant or lactating women who have an increased requirement for iron; infants, children, and adolescents in rapid growth phases; and people with a poor dietary intake of iron through a diet of little or no meat or eggs for several years. Folate or folic acid is necessary for red blood cell formation and growth. Dietary sources of folate are found in green leafy vegetables and liver. Because folate is not stored in the body in large amounts, a continual dietary supply of this vitamin is needed. In folate deficiency anemia, the red cells are abnormally large and are referred to as megalocytes, and in the bone marrow as megaloblasts. Subsequently, this anemia may be referred to as megaloblastic anemia. Causes of the anemia are poor dietary intake of folic acid as in chronic alcoholism, malabsorption diseases such as celiac disease and sprue, and certain medications. Deficiencies due to increased need for folic acid may occur in the third trimester of pregnancy. Risk factors are a poor diet, overcooking food, alcoholism, having a history of malabsorption diseases, and pregnancy. Vitamin B12 is essential for normal nervous system function and normal red cell, white cell and platelet production. All sources of vitamin B12 come from the diet in animal products, including dairy and eggs. Causes of vitamin B12 deficiency include a strict vegetarian diet excluding all meat, fish, dairy products, and eggs and chronic alcoholism. Anemia of B12 deficiency that is caused by a poor diet can be prevented

Evolution

2001-11-08T13:00:00-05:00
Since the dawn of humanity, there has been a single question that has puzzled even the greatest of philosophers and scientists. Humans are, by nature, interested in their past. As a result, every civilization through out time has sought to find the origin of life, and answered it to meet their needs. Early civilizations taught that there was a group of gods located on a far off mountain at the edge of the earth. These gods were responsible everything, ranging from the rising and setting of the sun to a young man winning a fair maidens hand in marriage. Civilizations grew more complex and learned more about the world around them. Soon events that were once looked at as magical or supernatural were explained and proven through logic, mathematical reasoning, and the evidence available. In the early to mid nineteenth century a scientist named Charles Darwin proposed a theory that broke the away from the common threads of reasoning that looked to deity or a higher force intervening with humans. Darwin’s proposition was labeled Natural Selection, or more commonly referred to as the survival of the fittest. Darwin proposed that living beings evolve, or change, to meet the needs of the environment around them to allow the species to continue surviving if conditions such as the food source changes As with the theories and beliefs of early cultures, Darwin’s Theory of Evolution was questioned and uncertain. When something new is presented to the world it is examined and tested to be show the human race that it is accurate. Logically the concept of a living organism changing over a long period of time was hard for people to accept. A community that insists life must come from life, just as motion must come from motion. Just as a billiard ball is incapable of rolling without a force being applied, a stone is incapable of give birth to an amoeba. The final opposition to the theory of evolution is the lack of supporting physical evidence. One of the best-known ways to learn of animals and life from ancient animals was to uncover fossils and bone material located in a fossil record. The fossil record is a name applied to the layers upon layers of fossils and soil found in the earths crust. Early in the stages of geology, evolutionary theory proposed that the fossils that would be unearthed would be clear evidence for

Autism

2001-11-05T13:00:00-05:00
What is Autism? “Autism affects more than 400,000 Americans, between 10 and 20 of ever 10,000 people in the United States” (Mayo). Autism is a developmental disability of the brain, much like dyslexia or attention deficit disorder. Autism is not a form of mental retardation, and though many autistic people act like they are retarded, but a lot of times they are very intelligent. People need to be aware of what is, what causes it, who it is diagnosed, what people with autism are like, is there more than one type of autism, and what are the most effective approaches. “Autism is a complex developmental disability that typically appears during the first three years of life” (Yahoo). The result of a neurological disorder that affects the functioning of the brain, autism and its associated behaviors have been estimated to occur in as many as 1 in 500 individuals. “Autism is four times more prevalent in boys than girls and knows no racial, ethnic, or social boundaries” (Edelson). “Family income, lifestyle, and educational levels do not affect the chance of autism’s occurrence” (Yahoo). “Autism impacts the normal development of the brain in the areas of social interaction and communication skills” (Yahoo). Children and adults with autism typically have difficulties in verbal and non-verbal communication, social interactions, and leisure or play activities. The disorder makes it hard for them to communicate with others and relate to the outside world. In some cases, aggressive and/or self-injurious behavior may be present. Persons with autism may exhibit repeated body movements (hand flapping, rocking), unusual responses to people or attachments to objects and resistance to changes in routines. “Individuals may also experience sensitivities in the five senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste (Yahoo). Over one half million people in the U.S. today have autism or some form of pervasive developmental disorder (Edelson). Its prevalence rate makes autism one of the most common developmental disabilities. Yet most of the public, including many professionals in the medical, educational, and vocational fields, are still unaware of how autism affects people and how they can effectively work with individuals with autism. Researchers from all over the world are devoting considerable time and energy into finding the answer to this critical question. Medical researchers are exploring different explanations for the various forms of autism. “Although a single specific cause of autism is not known, current research links autism to biological or neurological differences in

ADD/ADHD: A Decision That Can Change a Life

2001-11-05T13:00:00-05:00
Although American culture has changed over the years, parents today still want what is best for their children. Why then, are parents allowing their children to be put on medications that may have an adverse effect on their children? Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) have increasingly been diagnosed among young children today. Parents should become more informed about the over diagnosing, side effects, results of the medication and all other pertinent information before they allow their children to become treated. In this research paper we are first going to look at why ADD and ADHD diagnosing has become so widespread. Then we will look into the side effects of Ritalin; the number one drug prescribed for ADD and ADHD. Finally, we will consider the results of the treatment. ADD and ADHD have had a dramatic rate of increase since it was first “discovered” 25 years ago. “This “epidemic” has grown from 500 thousand in 1985 to between five and seven million today.” (Baughman) ADD and ADHD have become popular for many reasons. In today’s American culture and fast paced society it is likely that both parents will work. This breaks down the traditional family where only one parent would work and the other would stay home and take care of the children. This leads to a tremendous breakdown in parental supervision and involvement in their children’s academics. This lack of involvement by parents puts the burden onto the school system for a child’s lack of achievement. When a child academically performs poorly or has a problem at school, parents want corrective action to be taken no matter what the cost, as long as, it is a fast remedy with little involvement by the parent. In some cases, when a child is labeled with ADD or ADHD because he/she is doing poorly in school, the corrective action that needs to be taken is for the parent to simply spend more time with their children and tutor them in academic areas they’ re lacking in.” Children feel the loss, (quality time spent with parents) and they take action for attention. They misbehave, they cry, they become defiant, aggressive. The parents seek answers and relief to the family turmoil. The school, which is also experiencing the child’s defiance and aggression, seeks relief. Enter the school psychologist who provides the convenient answer. The child has ADD.” (DeWeese) Schools are looking

Role of parenting

2001-11-05T13:00:00-05:00
Role of Parental Motivational Practices in Children’s Academic Intrinsic Motivation and Achievement (Gottfried) Article Summary I chose to write my journal article research paper on the role of parents in children’s academic motivation and achievement. The article relates the parent’s role and at home practices, and the effect of these practices on the child’s performance and motivation. In the longitudinal study of children ages 9 and 10, two types of motivational practices were assessed: “Parental motivational practices that encourage pleasure in the learning process, curiosity, persistence, and task endogeny are positively related to children’s academic intrinsic motivation and achievement.” (Gottfried 105) “ Task-extrinsic parental motivational practices that emphasize external control, diminished autonomy, or devaluation of competence are negatively related to children’s academic intrinsic motivation and achievement.” (Gottfried 105) The data observed and given in the article from mothers also provided information on which motivational practices are used, such as provision of rewards, help with schoolwork, encouragement, punishment and negativity for unsatisfactory achievement. It is important to note that although the conceptual model was derived from theory and research pertaining to parents in general, the data collected in the article were solely on mothers. The findings of the research were that the predicted variables were proven positive, and there was a high correlation between parental motivational practices and a child’s academic intrinsic motivation and achievement. The study’s findings also proved that mothers’ provisions of task-extrinsic consequences had a negative effect on children’s academic intrinsic motivation, and were directly related. The study findings also showed that there were indirect effects on subsequent motivation and achievement through their effects on earlier academic intrinsic motivation. Remarks After reading the aforementioned journal article, I can only remark upon the fact that to me, this study seemed to only validate the obvious. I am in agreement with the findings to a point. I do believe that if you make children interested and motivated in what they are doing then they will have a higher achievement rate then children who are “bored” with school. I believe that most parents have the knowledge of what they should and should not do to help in their child’s academic performance but fail to achieve this task for many reasons. I do take into consideration, however; that although it may be detrimental to a student’s intrinsic motivation, in some cases to give rewards or encouragement, in other cases it is the only way some parents feel that they can

Technology and the state

2001-11-05T13:00:00-05:00
'Technology, above all else, has changed the nature of the state, not least in terms of making boundaries permeable' In discussing this statement I am going to discover whether technology is responsible for changing the nature of the state, but more specifically whether it has made boundaries more permeable. Although the statement holds the assumption that technology is the main factor of change, after reading several texts I have come to the conclusion that this belief is true, be it directly as a technological innovation or indirectly by how these innovations may influence other means of penetrating borders. The development of new technologies has for the best part of 150 years had a tremendous effect on society in general, and the world as a whole, from the development of the steam engine to the discovery of nuclear power, states have never been able to react the same. Of course, major technological advancement has been a phenomenon witnessed more frequently by the west, which of course initially made conflict between these countries more probable but ultimately more devastating, as vividly portrayed by WWI and WWII. I will begin by discussing the first major age of change and development, in this case, the industrial revolution. It now seems that the industrial revolution heralded the beginning of a new system that would concentrate on continuing development and heightening technology, not least when the military could find uses for them. Industrialization in the mid-19th Century also brought a new way of social classification, the traditional way of owning land to increase status had been replaced by capitalism where it seemed the more you earned the higher in society you could climb. This was an incentive for industry owners to seek greater efficiency through development. A number of factors had greatly changed the way the military could react by the beginning of the First World War. The birth of manufacturing had meant that uniforms, boots, guns could all be produced by the thousand. America had emerged as the forerunners of manufacturing and their civil war is described as 'the first industrialized war'. For the state it would be inevitable that they should get involved in industry because developments in industry brought about significant military applications. For instance, the steam engine had brought trains, important for industry and trade as they could transport goods quicker, but also important for the military. They could now mobilize troops much easier than

Confidentiality of individually identifiable health information

2001-11-04T13:00:00-05:00
Criterion A: Describing the issue The misuse of private health care information can cause discrimination against others in society. Nowadays we trust and depend upon the medical professionals to secure our private records. The computer revolution has made the process of transmitting information convenient, thus allowing our family secrets to travel from our family doctor to hospitals to insurance companies - increasing the level of insecurity. The idea of federal security legislation has been effective, but in these times other solutions are also needed to secure information so that the patient can be comfortable with the format at which the information is controlled. Without safeguards to assure that obtaining health care will not endanger our privacy, public discrimination can be created. The confidentiality of health information is an issue that profoundly affects every American. The fundamental question maintains Secretary of Health and Human Services Donna Shalala, is: "Will our health records be used to heal the public or reveal the patients?" 1 Criterion B: IT background of the issue In the past medical records were stored by means of big filing cabinets that were physically locked in the doctor¡¦s office. The safety of any disclosure was limited to the number of people who owned a key. The future has brought new technology in the computer and software industries where electronic databases were developed in order to control, store and arrange medical records more sufficiently and conveniently for authorized users. Hereby medical institutions had the ability to store vast amounts of information that can be accessed easily and allowed them to transfer the medical records via networks (email) to one another. Today one person¡¦s health information can be found in insurance companies, hospitals, therapists and psychiatrists all over the United States where multiple users within each company have the ability to access the information. Networks have made it possible for people to attach information by email and to copy2 medical records easily. Today, crackers can get remote access through any computer and obtain personal health records. Criterion C: Analyzing the impact of the issue Private health records can reflect unfavorably on individuals. In Florida for example, the names of 4,000 HIV-positive patients were carelessly released to two newspapers 4. It has been stated that this act has influenced the HIV-positive patients of finding jobs. The confidentiality issue has become so serious that President Clinton went before the nation late in 1999 with a speech calling

Skin Cancer: Melanoma

2001-11-04T13:00:00-05:00
What causes melanoma? Scientists do not yet know exactly what causes melanoma skin cancer, but we do know that certain risk factors are linked to the disease. Some risk factors, like smoking, can be controlled. Others, like a person's age or family history, can't be changed. But having a risk factor, or even several, doesn’t mean that a person will get the disease. Risk Factors for Melanoma Skin Cancer
Moles: Moles are (not cancerous) skin tumors. People with lots of moles, and those who have some large moles, have an increased risk for melanoma.
Fair skin: Fair skin, freckling, and light hair increases the risk of melanoma.
Family history: Around 10% of people with melanoma have a close relative (mother father, brother, sister, child) with the disease.
Immune weakness: People who have been treated with medicines that suppress the immune system have an increased risk of developing melanoma.
UV radiation: Too much exposure to UV radiation is a risk factor for melanoma. The main source of such radiation is sunlight.
Age: About half of melanomas occur in people over the age of 50. But younger people can get melanoma too. What Is Melanoma? You've heard the term "melanoma" before, but what does it mean? Let me help you understand. Cancer occurs when cells in a part of the body begin to grow out of control. Although there are many kinds of cancer, they all come about because of rapid growth of abnormal cells. Different kinds of cancer can behave very differently. For example, lung cancer and breast cancer are very different diseases. They grow at different rates and respond to different treatments. That's why people with cancer need treatment that is aimed at their kind of cancer. Because they behave differently, skin cancers are divided into two major groups: melanoma skin cancer and nonmelanoma skin cancer. This research report covers melanoma skin cancer only. Melanoma begins in the cells (melanocytes) that produce the skin coloring. In order to understand melanoma, it's helpful to learn about normal skin. Normal Skin The skin is the largest organ in the body. It covers and protects the organs inside the body. It also protects the body against germs and prevents the loss of too much water and other fluids. The skin sends messages to the brain about heat, cold, touch, and pain. The skin has three layers. From the outside in, they are: the epidermis, the dermis, and

The Internet, is it a boon or a bane?

2001-10-31T13:00:00-04:00
With the Dotcom gold rush and the advent of the Internet, the world has proliferated and grew more sophisticated. The Internet, just like the cellular phones and televisions, has become a need in this modern era. Closer to home, the introduction of the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) has boosted the numbers of Internet users in Malaysia. In fact, the cyberspace fever is still spreading, faster than we ever imagine. The Internet, once dominated by the military intelligence has brought changes into our lives. Although it was initially created as a communication system to last the fallout of a nuclear war, the Internet has been librated. One needs only a telephone line and a computer equipped with a modem to explore the cyberspace. Thus, knowledge is now easily and readily accessible. With just a simple surf to various search engines in the Net like Yahoo or AltaVista, we can get thousands of web addresses linked to the information we want. We can even download it and save it into our computer for free. Further more, communication via the Internet is very convenient and cheap. Net communities can congregate via e-groups or chat rooms with a very low cost. Discussion can be made online without the hassle of rushing to a meeting place. We can even contact our friends or relatives anywhere in the world easily by sending e-mails, which is much cheaper than the conventional “Snail Mail”. In deed, the Internet boom has made the world even smaller. Besides that, Internet-based companies, usually known as the Dotcoms, are sprouting everywhere, creating a new type of business for the communities. This so-called business of the new millennium is e-commerce. It is actually an online web portal created by the companies as a platform for them to provide their services or sell their products to everyone in the world without the need of launching new branches in other countries. In Malaysia, many Dot Com companies are formed due to the fact that we need these type of companies for our MSC project. Some meet failures in the middle of formation, but those successive ones keep on earning big money from the benefits of e-commerce. However, cyberspace is no longer a safe zone. One of the major treat caused by the introduction of the Internet is pornography. The recent survey shows that 30% of the websites parked in the Net contain sexual-based images or

Light Pollution, All About Its Effects!

2001-10-29T13:00:00-04:00
Some people might think its the opposite of heavy pollution! But NO, Light Pollution is man made light that falls outside the area of intended lighting. Some examples are a street light that shines in your yard or your bedroom window and a billboard light that over shines the sign. Light pollution is the broad, glowing,dome of light we see over metropolitan areas, sports arenas, parking lots, or industrial complexes. It can also be a neighbor's backyard light shining into your bedroom window throughout the night. Basically, light pollution is any unwanted, annoying, or unproductive light spewing into the night environment. Light energy is wasted on street light, security light, billboard, or building lights. You notice that much of the light is not hitting the area that needs the lighting. Look down a long road in or near the city. Every light source you can see is wasting energy. and you can see the light source, that fixture is not directing that light where it is needed, therefore that light is being wasted. Light pollution is becoming an increasing problem now because of population growth. We think that this is not a problem but If you thought about it about cramming thousands of these wasteful lighting practices in urban and suburban areas, and it equals an enormous waste of energy, unnecessary environmental impact, it may improve safety and security, and just looks bad and ugly. It takes electricity to produce light. Up to 50% of the light produced by street lights do not fall on the intended area and are wasted. The wasted light is spread over a wide area and even above the horizon. Any light source or sources of light which are grouped that let out bright light, which distresses other humans is the cause of light pollution. We use fossil fuels and nuclear reactors to produce most of our electricity. Unfortunately these methods of producing energy are not friendly to our environment. Burning coal and oil emits carbon dioxide and sulfur compounds into our air. Carbon dioxide is a green house gas that adds to the global warming problem. Sulfur compounds dissolve in water that is in the clouds and produce acid rain. Nuclear reactors produce radioactive waste which is difficult and expensive to dispose of safely. Direct light entering your eyes from these inefficient lighting fixtures produces glare. Glare makes it more difficult to see, especially when driving in

Space Exploration

2001-10-25T14:00:00-04:00
"Approaching the end of Apollo, my frustration often surfaced. No one in America seemed to care that we were giving up, surrendering the future of the next generation of young people with stars in their eyes.... How I wished John F. Kennedy were still alive, challenging us to dare and to dream. I feel the same way today; the boldness and scope of his vision is not to be found today in our space program and in our nation.... Entering the twenty-first century, we have an unimaginable array of technology and a generation of young Americans schooled in these technologies. With our powerful economy, we can do anything we set our mind to do. Yet we stand with our feet firmly planted on the ground when we could be exploring the universe. Three decades ago... Americans placed six flags on the Moon. Today we no longer try for new and bold space achievements; instead we celebrate the anniversaries of the past.... Our work is unfinished" - Gene Kranz, Failure Is Not An Option There's a certain something about science which is part of its appeal to me and to many others. Call it a willingness to dream, if you will. Sometimes a dream may be amusing, as with the molecular creations (dodecahedrane, cubane, superphane, basketane, and of course buckminsterfullerene) described in Designing the Molecular World by Philip Ball. Sometimes a dream may be visionary and bold, as with the dream to finally understand the physics that underlies our world. There's definitely something interesting about the fact that the fundamental particles of the universe can be drawn in a chart on a T-shirt, or that the equations behind classical electromagnetism can be scribbled on a scrap of paper. For some 400 years, scientists have dared to dream that they can understand and explore the universe, ever since Galileo peered into the night skies with a simple telescope. I read a large amount of books and magazines; in addition to the science books that fill my bookshelf, I subscribe to Scientific American and Discover and several other scientific magazines. They all are, in some way, connected with the dreams of science, whether it be the dreams of the past (scientific history) or dreams about the future of science. How excited I was when I saw the March 2000 issue of Scientific American, which at the top had the words "Special Report: Sending Humans to

The Internet

2001-10-25T14:00:00-04:00
Right now I'm thinking about the Internet, the all-pervasive medium through which I've published my thoughts and work I've done in my free time for several years now. Like mostly everyone else, I communicate with others using the Internet, play games through it, read news, and learn about things. (Except, sadly, I am not convinced the general public is interested in learning.) And we are all familiar with the "dot com mania" and the insane rise in the NASDAQ - and, sadly, the subsequent fall of the NASDAQ. People have been wondering exactly what was behind all of this, and if the Internet - which once seemed so enticing - is now bogus. "What we are entering is a power age, and the importance of the power age lies in its ability, rightly used with the wage motive behind it, to increase and cheapen production so that all of us may have more of this world's goods. The way to liberty, the way to equality of opportunity, the way from empty phrases to actualities, lies through power" - Henry Ford Here's something which should not be news: the entire .com insanity was a crock from the start! That's right - the entire New Economy was founded on delusions and misinformation all along. But just as people were overzealous then, they are overly pessimistic now (at the time of this writing). The Internet is not intrinsically a crock. But the general public got a taste of what the Internet can do, and warped and distorted it into a magical cure-all for all of life's problems. The Internet cannot produce material objects; only industry can. The Internet can near-instantaneously transport information from any location to any location, but it cannot transport atoms. And while information is fun and happy, many other things we enjoy (such as books (for now), pizza, and computers!) are made of heavy, sluggish atoms. Throwing up a web site does not automatically mean instant wealth, nor does a name that ends in ".com". This has always been true, and will continue to be true (for a while...), but for a short time most everyone deluded themselves into believing the exact opposite. And even technically knowledgeable people (such as myself, and many others who knew what the Internet was before everyone and his uncle came onto the scene) were caught up in the hysteria, because the Internet is indeed really

Programming

2001-10-25T14:00:00-04:00
Let me say at the start that, as I write this, my experience is not that diverse, nor am I highly skilled in all the languages I've come into contact with yet. In the order I learned them, I know QBASIC, C, DrScheme, and Java. And, uh, Tierran. So when I say "imperative", I'm speaking from my C experience; "functional" refers to my DrScheme nightma..., er, experience, and "object-oriented" means Java, along with what I've heard about C++. My background in particular: QBASIC from early childhood to middle school or so. C starting after high school senior year. DrScheme in Caltech CS1 and CS2, freshman year. Java in CS3 the final third of freshman year. So, what programming philosophy is best? One of the main things we desire in a programming language is being able to do stuff. Raw assembly offers no structure and is quite crocky and nonportable, but it's fast and powerful, and for this reason tight inner loops are often coded in assembler. (Whether they need to be is a topic for another time.) It's said that C combines all the power of assembly language with all the ease of use of assembly language, and C is indeed not a very high level language. It does offer much richer structure than assembler, of course, which is why I like C, and I haven't been daring enough to learn real assembly let. The problem is, of course, that computers and their programming languages are too powerful. Computers work with so much input and data (which you usually can't make very many assumptions about), so quickly, and can do so many things to them, that humans really can't picture all at once everything that happens. What happens when we overdose on power? Bugs. Memory leaks, general protection faults, crashing, instability - all of these are due to programs doing stuff they shouldn't. A programmer is at fault if he causes this stuff to happen, but a good language ought to guide the programmer into using power carefully, without restricting (too much) his abilities. We can see the simplest example of imperative programming in QBASIC. BASIC is much maligned for being sucky. And it is, for a number of reasons. Writing programs in BASIC leads to messy code devoid of form or structure, peppered with goto statements. And as we all know, goto statements are considered harmful. This is actually a good point.

Introduction to C

2001-10-25T14:00:00-04:00
This is an introductory essay on C programming. It assumes that you know varying amounts about computers and programming in general. First, I recommend that you purchase The C Programming Language, Second Edition by Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie (referred to by everyone as K&R2), and also Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets by Peter van der Linden, and keep both at your side while you program. They are very useful and very handy books. The C language has changed some since the publication of these books, but overall its flavor is still much the same as it has always been. This essay will focus entirely on "modern C", that is to say, the ANSI Standard C language dating from 1989. A revised standard was created in 1999, incorporating numerous and sometimes signficant changes to the language; however, I will not refer to it (much) here since its features are not so much of interest to beginning programmers, and (as I write this, 2001) "C99" compilers are not in wide, or any use at all. Beware: Peter van der Linden and K&R2 occasionally refer to anachronisms which you do not need to know about, and in fact probably should not know about, as they are confusing, useless, and dated. First, C is a compiled language, like C++ or Fortran (speaking of dated, useless anachronisms) and unlike interpreted languages such as BASIC and DrScheme. Additionally, C has steps that Java (which occupies a middle ground between compilation and interpretation) lacks. Conceptually, a programmer creates a series of text files, named in the manner *.c and *.h, which make up the source code to a program, and then uses a C compiler on them. The compiler shall behave as if first it "preprocesses" the text files, and then "compiles" them. You do not need to know the magic that actually goes on behind the scenes; in fact, you should stay away from knowing too much about your compiler. Compilers vary on different systems. If you program in a Windows environment, I suggest DJGPP, which is a port of the freedom software compiler gcc for the Linux platform. Preprocessing only acts on the text files themselves. The preproccesor, and the commands used to instruct it, form a sort of primitive proto-language on top of C. In fact, this is how it historically evolved, if you are curious. The C preprocessor is highly useful, and isn't

Hydrogen

2001-10-24T14:00:00-04:00
Background An example of a gas would be hydrogen. A chemical property is how a substance changes its identity. An example of this would be being able to support flammability. A physical property distinguises one type of matter from another and can be observed without changing its identity. An example of this is something’s boiling point because when you change a liquid to a gas it does not change its identity only its form. A chemical change is when something changes identity and example of this would be burning something because you are changing the substances identity. An example of a physical change would be chopping wood because it is still wood just in pieces. An exothermic reaction is when something lets off heat to make a change. An example of an exothermic reaction is turning water to ice because the water needs to cool down and let off energy to exist as a solid and that is why ice cubes are cold. An endothermic reaction is when a substance needs to gain heat and takes it in. An example of this would be water turning into gas because gas needs a lot of energy and that is why when you apply heat to water it turns into a gas. Purpose To determine the properties of the gas, hydrogen, by generating the gas though a chemical change and identifying the gas by performing a simple test. Hypothesis For my hypothesis, I think that the burning splint will react by making the flame get slightly bigger. I think that hydrogen is less dense than air is. Materials
vinegar
Mg. Ribbon
goggles
test tube
wooden splint.
lighter Procedure First thing, we had to obtain the vinegar and make cualitative observations about it and do the same with the Mg ribbon. Then we had to roll the Mg ribbon into a ball and it to the vinegar. After adding the Mg ribbon, we had to quickly put our thumb over the vial and make observations of what was happing during the reaction. After waiting four minuets. After that, we had to light a wooden splint on fire. I took my thumb off the test tube and applied the burning splint. Then observed about the reaction. Conclusion For my hypothesis, I was partly correct about what would happen when the burning splint was applied to the vial because the flame did grow larger but it also made a noise as well. I was correct about saying that it

Sickle-Cell Anemia

2001-10-20T14:00:00-04:00
Sickle-Cell Anemia is an inherited blood disorder that affects millions of people around the world. It is particularly common among people whose ancestors come from sub-Sahara Africa and Spanish speaking regions. Approximately 2 million Americans carry the sickle cell trait. Sickle-Cell Anemia is caused by an error in the gene that tells the body how to make hemoglobin. The defective gene tells the body to make the abnormal hemoglobin that results in deformed red blood cells. The presence of two sickle-cell genes is necessary for a child to have the disease. Which means there is about a 25% chance for a child to have the

Skin Cancer

2001-10-20T14:00:00-04:00
What Keeps Us Alive Can Also Kill Us Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer in the United States. According to current estimates, 40 to 50 percent of Americans who live to age 65 will have skin cancer at least once. There are two different types of skin cancer: Melanomous and non-melanomous. To understand both of these terms a little better you need to be aware that your skin is divided up into 3 layers: the epidermis, dermis, and subcutis. The top layer, the epidermis, is very thin and serves to protect the deeper layers of the skin. The epidermis is also composed of basal cells, which in turn divide to form squamous cells and melanocytes. Melanoma skin cancer develops from the melanocytes and non-melanomous skin cancer develops from the basal and squamous cells. There are 2 types of non-melanomous cancer that result from these cells. The first is basal cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma begins in the lowest layer of the epidermis, the basal cell layer. About 75% of all skin cancers are basal cell carcinomas. This type of skin cancer tends to be slow growing and is usually found in areas that are highly exposed to sunlight, such as the head or neck. The second type is called squamous cell carcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma accounts for 20% of all skin cancers, and penetrates the skin more than basal cell would, therefore, is considered to be more harmful. Unlike non-melanomous skin cancer, melanomous is much more uncommon and much more deadly. Melanomous skin cancer accounts for less than 4% of skin cancer cases, but causes about 79% of skin cancer deaths. The American Cancer Society predicts that in the year 2000 about 7,700 people will die of this cancer. Surprisingly, even with these astonishing numbers people still continue to put themselves at risk everyday. Through the efforts of organizations such as the American Cancer Society people are becoming more aware everyday of the severity of skin cancer. The solution to all this is very simple, we all need to wear sunscreen (at least SPF 15) when planning to expose ourselves to the sun. There are also other everyday preventive measures that we can take to decrease our chances of harmful exposure to the sun. It is always helpful to wear a shirt and a hat with a broad brim. Wear sunglasses that absorb 99%-100% of the UV rays to help

Retinoblastoma

2001-10-18T14:00:00-04:00
Victims of retinoblastoma are infants and toddlers under the age of five years old. Many victim's symptoms indicate they have this cancer. Many symptoms are: that the pupil is observed to be wite, or, if the eye turns outward toward the ear. Children that have retinoblastoma may also have a red, painful eye, poor vision, inflammation of tissue surrounding the eye, an enlarged or dialated pupil, different colored irises. The number one cause of retinoblastoma is from heredity, but many researchers still have questions on how else the cancer comes to play without the heredity side. If a patient's parent is fully aware of the child's eye the pediatrician will then take the child in for a full eye examination. Some retinoblastoma patients may laso have extra fingers or toes, malformed ears, or even retardation. On rare occasions, retinoblastoma is discovered on a well-baby examination. Every year, one out of every fifteen to thirty thousand children are affected by retinoblastoma. Children are affected in either one eye (unilateral) or in both eyes (bilateral). In most cases (over 75%) the cancer is only involved in one eye; the rest are affeted in both eyes. Most retinoblastoma patients have no famly history of the disease; only 10% do have other family members with retinoblastoma. Approximately, only twenty-five to thirty people actually die from retinoblastoma in the United States annually. The prognosis of someone with retinoblastoma can greatly change depending on where the tumor is located and if it has spread to other parts of the body. The tumor is classified according to how dangerous it is. Usually the pediatrician can tell by how serious the tumor is by how far it has spread, if the tumor is still contained in the eye there are many treatments that the patient can choose form. But, if the disease has spread throughout hte body into the brain then the tumor(s) is treated with chemotherapy. Retinoblastoma can be treated with many options. The treatment depends upon the age of the child, the involvement of one or both eyes, and whether or not the cancer has spread to other parts of the body. No treatment may mean that the child would die. Most goals for treatment from most to least impport ranking are: saving the child's life, maintaining the eye and vision, and preserving cosmetic appearance. THe most common form of treatment for retinoblastoma is enucleation. During an enucleation the eye

Computer Abuse

2001-10-17T14:00:00-04:00
The use of computers within the business and government sector has said to have ‘rapidly increased over the last fifteen years’; this therefore provides a whole new prospect for a distinctive criminal to prosper, and in most cases, to go utterly undiscovered. It has been anticipated that, unless this particular problem is tackled head on, losses from the computer crime may eventually reach $50 billion per year. One expert in the field has estimated that, under present law the chances of a computer criminal being convicted are 1 in 500, and of going to jail as 1 in 1000. The possibility of corporations or banks going bankrupt as a result of computer theft is very real. W. John Taggart, “Computer Law in Australia”. There are many forms of computer abuse, yet they have come to many solutions. Many penalties if the criminals get caught and yet there are many weaknesses in computer law. With the expeditions rate of advances in technology, coping with those classified as ‘computer criminals’ who are always one step ahead, is virtually impossible. They may ‘patch up’ faults in previous systems, however do not recognise faults in latest systems until it’s too late. Computer crime involves the unauthorised and unlawful use of a computer. Given growth of technology in our society, the incidence of computer rime is a matter of considerable concern for our law-makers. The cost of computer crime in the United States has been estimated to be at least $5000 million a year. (Cudmor, Greg “Computer Law”, page 8). Who would be classified as a ‘computer criminal’? It is said that often the ‘computer criminal’ is a trusted employee and the problem for organisations seems to be internal security. The community considers computer crime, as being less serious than other crimes against property, such as burglary or car theft, as it is not violent or public. In many instances computer crime is not always reported, due to the complexity of information systems. It is sometimes possible for offences to be concealed and often victims are unaware that an offence has even been committed. A reason for computer crime not being reported is when the crime is discovered companies defrauded of tremendous sums of money are sometimes ashamed to report a breach of security. Another reason is that the offender is sometimes and employee of the company and if the harm is not significant the company may discipline

Computers and Children's Learning

2001-10-08T14:00:00-04:00
Evaluate the significance of working with computers for children's learning in the classroom The role of technology in childhood education is a controversial topic, and both parents and educators have concerns about the potential benefits or harm to young children. Critics contend that technology in schools wastes time, money and childhood itself by speeding up the pace and cutting down on essential learning experiences (Cordes & Miller, 2000; Healy, 1998). Proponents suggest that children should have the advantages that new technologies can offer. There is also some concern that modern technology is not being used in the best ways, or obtaining the expected results (Healy, 1998). This essay will review the considerations for technology use in childhood education and will address the question of whether computers can replace more traditional teaching methods. Both critics and proponents of computers in the classroom agree on the importance of the early years in a child's physical, social-emotional, language, and cognitive development. Perhaps the area of development most researched in relation to computer use has been that of cognitive development and the question of how modern technology is affecting children's minds. Are computers being used to enhance and hasten cognitive development, or are they detracting from and inhibiting intellectual growth in some way? Can technology support the specific needs of children or does it take away from essential developmental experiences? Knowledge of children's development and studies of children and technology use can guide understanding and inform decisions. Recent research on brain development has focused attention on the capabilities of young children, the stages and styles of learning, social-emotional development, and successful educational practice. Such research has argued that children lack knowledge and experience, but not reasoning ability and that the appropriate stimuli, such as close interaction with caring adults and engaging hands-on activities, enhance the brain's development (Healy, 1998). A study by the National Research Council (Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 1999) states that "early learning is assisted by the supportive context of the family and the social environment, through the kinds of activities in which adults engage with children". The influence of Piaget's and Vygotsky's constructivist theories are evident in this recent research and it is in considering their models of development that we can make some assessment about the significance of working with computers for children's learning. Much research has attempted to apply the developmental theories of Piaget to children's computer usage. In considering the Piagetian tasks of

Genetic Modification of Foodstuffs

2001-10-05T14:00:00-04:00
Virtually every crop we eat have undergone hundreds of years of genetic modification by farmers and scientist in search of desirable traits. Selective breeding and hybrid strains have contributed immeasurably to farm productivity during this time. Over the past 30 years however, genetic engineering has been revolutionized. While before, a farmer wanting to develop a frost resistant tomato would be able to breed towards one only if the necessary genes were available somewhere in tomatoes or a near relative to tomatoes, modern biological engineering techniques overcome such restrictions. Genetic traits from outside a species’ gene pool, in the tomato’s case from an arctic fish, can be spliced into the organism to create an entirely different species, a transgenic organism with the typical traits of a tomato and frost resistance from a fish. The most widely used method of gene splicing, recombinant DNA, uses biochemical "scissors" called restriction enzymes to cut the strings of DNA, selecting required genes. These are then “ferried” by a virus or a bacterium that infects the host, smuggling the gene into the plant's DNA. In this way scientists have been able to create slow ripening and seedless fruit, crops that grow in unfavourable conditions and are resistant to disease or herbicides and milk from cows given a genetically engineered growth hormone. The benefits of gene technology in terms of food production are enormous. The most common genetically engineered crops contain modifications that make the plants resistant to certain diseases and herbicides, or allow them to produce their own pesticides, thereby eliminating or reducing the need to spray. So-called "Bt corn," for example, contains a gene resistant to the harmful mycotoxin fungus and herbicide producers, Monsanto have created a strain of soybeans genetically modified to be unaffected by their product Roundup. The soybean farmer therefore can avoid targeting specific weeds and require just one application of a general weed-killer, reducing costs and agricultural waste run-off. Genetically modified crops are also being adapted to grow in salty, dry or frosty environments, contain edible vaccines, have a longer shelf life and be more nutritious. A group of Swiss and German scientists recently developed a strain of GM rice know as ‘golden rice’ due to its altered colour. Containing genes that produce a unusually high amount of beta-carotene (vitamin A), this rice could be a solution to the thousands of poor children in Asia who eat little but rice and go blind or

Sigmund Freud: his Life and his Work

2001-09-18T14:00:00-04:00
Sigmund Freud was born on May 6th 1856 in Freiberg, Moravia, which is now in Czech Republic. He is the eldest of eight children born to Jacob and Amalie Freud. Because of the anti-semetic riots who were ragging in Freiberg , Freud’s father, who was a wool merchant, lost his business and the whole family had to move to Leipzig (1859) and shortly after to Vienna where Freud spend most of his life. When he lived in Vienna, Freud had, once more, to come accross anti-semetism : jewish people had been persecuted in Europe for hundreds of years and they would often be attacked on the streets or called names. Freud was a very intelligent and hard working student, but when he left school, he was not sure of what he wanted to do. At first, he decided to become a lawyer. Then, he decided to study medicine and to become a doctor, for this reason, he enrolled in the medical school of the University of Vienna (1873) and he often came top of the class. To the eyes of Freud, working hard and wanting to find out about things were the two most important qualities in life. In his 3rd year at the University, he started a reasearch work on the central nervous system in a phisiological laboratory under the direction of Ernst Wilhelm von Brucke. During this period of reasearch, Freud neglected his courses and as a result, he remained in medical school 3 years longer than it was normally required to qualify a physician. He received his medical degree in 1881 . He spend three years working at the General Hospital of Vienna - working successively to psychatry, dermatology and to nervous diseases -. In the year 1885, he is given a government grant enabling him to spent 19 weeks in Paris to work with French neurologist Jean Charcot - director of the mental hospital, The Salpetriere - who tried to understand and treat nervous disorders, and most especially hysteria. Charcot used hypnosis to prove that the real problem of his patients was a mental one. From this demonstration, Freud realised the power that the mind had on the body, and he came back from Paris, determined to make a name for himself in this new field of study. When he came back from Paris, Freud immediately married his sister’s friend Martha Bernays. At first, the other doctors

Genetic Engineering

2001-09-07T14:00:00-04:00
The selective Engineering of Genetics is invaluable to the health and happiness of humans. The importance of this issue has played second fiddle to the arguments, for and against genetic engineering. This essay will discuss the impact of genetic engineering on everyday life, for example genetic disorders, disease and how its impact on life in the world today. Although the opinions differ greatly, the benefits are substantial. Firstly, an increasing importance is being placed on the role of genetic engineering in the use of riding the incidence of genetic disorders. ‘There are over 6,000 known disorders which are due to a change (mutation) in a single gene.’ (Healey, 1994: p. 11) These disorders cause havoc in growth, development and general health. (Healey, 1994: p. 11) Despite the acceptance of disabilities in the 21st century, the manner in which society portrays disabled persons as something ‘out of the norm’ is still prevalent. One person who was interviewed stated: “ My condition changes my insurance and superannuation status, and that of my children…”(Healey, 1994: p. 14) Hopefully the eradication of genetic disorders will become more than merely a dream. With the utilization of manipulating human cells, genetic disorders such as ‘Down Syndrome’ and ‘Multiple Sclerosis’ can be identified to the specific abnormality (Hawley, 1998). Granting the employment of Genetic Engineering will enable scientists to produce embryo’s that would typically bare these disorders to become infrequent, thus reducing the amount of “birth defects in the community”, allowing at risk patients to avoid these, at time discriminatory and painful afflictions (Hepburn, 1992: p. 83). The prospect of genetic engineering does not simply benefit human genetic disorders, but creates a positive outlook towards many different conditions. (Healey, 1994: p. 14) Surprisingly, a variety of diseases are determined by genetic factors. Human’s have a predicted 100,000 genes, approximately five to seven of which do not function as they are accustomed to (Human Genetic Disorders, 2001). These inadequate genes manifest diseases, which are debilitating and terminal. In the case of cancer, the extent of people being affected by this disease is increasing dramatically, rising 65% from 1983 to 1991 (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2001). The administering of genetic engineering will see the rate of prevention of cancer increase. In addition cancer is the product of mutated human cells, (genes of which are part of these cells) the genetic makeup of any particular person can generate cancerous cells

Evolution and Charles Darwin

2001-08-11T14:00:00-04:00
Charles Robert Darwin has had the greatest influence on the world by proving the evolution of living things. Charles Darwin had first noticed the similarities of plants and animals when he took a five-year cruise on the H.M.S. Beagle, which was available to him through a friend from school. During the cruise Charles Darwin started becoming interested with the similarities between the plants and animals that were similar on different islands with similar climates, so he decided to study them more closely. With the studies that Charles Darwin obtained he published his first work, “The Origin of Species.” In this book he explained how for millions of years animals, and plants have evolved to better help their existence. Darwin reasoned that these living things had gradually changed over time to help themselves. The changes that he found seemed to have been during the process of reproduction. The traits which would help them survive became a dominant trait, while the weaker traits became recessive. A good example of what Darwin was trying to explain is shown in giraffes. Long-necked giraffes could reach the food on the trees, while the short-necked giraffes couldn’t. Since long necks helped the giraffes eat, short-necked giraffes died off from hunger. Because of this long-necks became a dominant trait in giraffes. This is what Charles Darwin would later call natural selection. Charles Darwin also showed how new species were created on the acts of evolution. It is easily explained by having big differences from the effect of natural selection, which were considered to be new species. So back in the beginning, before the effects of evolution had occurred there was just one specie, which evolved to make the species that we know today. So somehow all species are somewhat connected. The basis of what Darwin was proving was that life on Earth is simply the result of billions of years of adaptation to the changing environments. That is why certain species can only live in certain climates. This can be explained with the color of your skin, or the growing of plants. The color of your skin used to depend on where you live. (Before transportation became so easy.) Darker skinned people would live where it is hotter, and the sun shines more. Lighter skinned people would live in cooler, less sunny areas. This is because the darker pigments in your skin would keep you from burning. (Like when you

The Latest Advances in Drug Manipulations of the Immune System

2001-08-09T14:00:00-04:00
INTRODUCTION In order to provide a detailed analysis of recent pharmacological developments involving the human immune system, it is firstly necessary to introduce the innate and adaptive immune responses . Immunosuppressants and immunomodulators will be differentiated between and a selection of new and often experimental drugs belonging to each category will be provided. Specific drugs will be described including the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics involved with each type. The possible clinical uses will be alluded to along with details from recent research. INNATE IMMUNITY Innate immunity is the first line of defence and comprises physical (skin), biochemical (complement, lysozyme) and cellular (macrophages, neutrophils) mechanisms (Katzung, 1998). All these mechanisms are non-specific, anti-microbial agents which work in conjunction with adaptive immune responses to provide a more effective system (Downie et. al., 1995). ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY The adaptive immune system is split into two mechanisms: humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity. A basic understanding of these concepts is necessary for the purpose of understanding the specific effects of different immunopharmacological agents. HUMORAL IMMUNITY Humoral or antibody-mediated immunity is associated with B-lymphocyte cells. Antigens are foreign molecules that initiate an immune response, they have inherent immunogenicity (Tortora & Grabowski, 1996). Upon contact with an antigen, B-cells divide to produce a clone of plasma cells capable of the production of antibodies. Antibodies are immunoglobulins, modified blood proteins with a specific action against antigens. Five main sub-types of immunoglobulins have been identified of which IgG is the most abundant in bodily fluids (Hopkins, 1995). Several cells are known to initiate the process of plasma cell differentiation and are known collectively as antigen presenting cells (APCs) (Waller & Renwick, 1994). Lymphokines The antigen on the surface of the APC triggers TH-cells to produce hormone-like lymphokines (Lessof, 1993). Lymphokines are cytokines, regulators of the immune reactions which are produced by lymphocytes. Examples of these chemicals include interleukins, interferon and tumour necrosis factors. Their action involves the regulation of the proliferation, differentiation and activity of leukocytes (Dale et. al., 1994). The nature of lymphocyte stimulation will determine which class of immunoglobulin will be produced (Waller & Renwick, 1994). The role of complement & antibody-antigen complexes Antibodies have two distinct functions: to recognise and combine with an antigen, and to activate a defence mechanism for example by activating the complement sequence (Dale et. al., 1994). This sequence involves more than thirty proteins (Mollnes & Harboe, 1996) and has the function of the destruction and removal of invading micro-organisms and subcellular debris and

Anorexia Nervosa

2001-08-06T14:00:00-04:00
Anorexia Nervosa is characterized by a refusal to maintain a minimal normal body weight. A disturbance in perception of body shape and weight is an essential feature of anorexia nervosa. It appears to be far more present in industrialized societies, in which there is an abundance amount of food and in which being considered attractive is linked to being thin. The disorder is most common in countries like the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia and Japan. More than 95% of cases of anorexia nervosa occur in females between the ages of 14 and 45 years. Most researchers agree that out of every 200 American girls between the ages of 12 and 18, one will develop anorexia to some degree. Therapists find that persons with anorexia usually lack self-esteem and feel they can gain admiration and attention by losing weight and becoming thin. There is no single cause of anorexia nervosa, because it’s a complex disorder with multiple causes that may be different for every person. From what is know it seems that this is a disorder of many causes that come together to produce the illness. These recognized causes include the nature of the personality of the girl herself, aspects of her family its members and relationships, and stresses and problems occurring outside the home, often at school. There is an increase risk in families in which there are other anorexics and this probably indicates a genetic cause also. Some theorists have pointed to socialcultural factors as potential causes for anorexia. Distorted body images and dissatisfaction on the part of anorexia patients may be influenced by how weight is portrayed in the media and our cultural values about women’s appearance. Anorexia Nervosa is a disorder of self-starvation that has both physical and psychological consequences. The first physical signs of anorexia nervosa include emaciation, constipation, dry skin and brittle nails. As the heart muscle deteriorates, the rhythm often changes putting the anorexic at risk of heart attacks. Malnutrition and starvation place the anorexia patient at risk for bone loss, infertility and osteoporosis. Starvation places the body under a great deal of stress, increasing the rates of kidney failure, heart failure, and respiratory infections. As the disorder progresses, the psychological consequences become evident. The previously hard-working, over-achieving perfectionist becomes less interested in activities that once brought her pleasure. She experiences difficulty concentrating, loses interest in school, and focuses more on intensive exercise and dieting.

Behaviour in Groups

2001-07-29T14:00:00-04:00
The Psychological definition of a ‘group’ is broken down into 7 categories:
Interaction – a group is a collection of individuals who are interacting with one another.
Perception of belonging – a group consists of 2 or more persons who perceive themselves to belong to a group.
Interdependence – group members are interdependent.
Common goals – a group is a collection of individuals who join together to achieve a goal.
Needs satisfaction – individuals who belong to a group are trying to satisfy some need through group membership.
Roles and norms – members of a group structure their interactions by means of roles and norms. Roles consist of sets of obligations and expectations. Norms imply established ways of behaving – that is, uniformity among people in the ways they behave.
Influence – a group is a collection of individuals who influence each other.
The study of individuals in groups and group behaviour has been a core of social psychology since its inception in the early 1900s. One of the first "experiments" in social psychology was by Triplett in 1898, considering the effects of the presence of others on performance. The authors examine this phenomenon as well as group communication, task performance in groups such as problem-solving and decision-making, and leadership characteristics and styles. The definition of group that is used in most research is "people who are interdependent and have potential for mutual interaction, influencing one another in some way". Groups are defined by four specific dimensions: size, goals, duration and scope of activities performed. While groups can be a function of a wide range of these factors, experimental groups that are analysed in laboratory settings are usually small, short-lived and narrow in focus, limiting the generalizability of such findings. Groups in real-world settings must be analysed as well, in order to obtain a complete picture of the functioning of groups. A number of factors defining a group's structure have also been identified. One important aspect of groups is the social norms that emerge. These are the rules and expectations for behaviour that identifies what is acceptable behaviour and attitudes and what is not. Social roles also emerge within a given group. These define the division of labor within a group. A status hierarchy can also emerge, differentiating positions within a group. Expectation state theory (Berger & colleagues, 1986), addresses the issue of status and what factors influence an individual's status within a group. A group having certain goals will

Hepatitis C

2001-06-25T14:00:00-04:00
My uncle was not the only person to become infected with the hepatitis C virus, but in fact many people are presently struggling to keep it under control. Today four million Americans are infected with the hepatitis C virus and there are thirty thousand new cases of this virus found each year (Turkington 9). Hepatitis C takes ten thousand lives each year just in the United States, and without effective treatment the death rate is expected to triple in the next fifteen years (Turkington 9). Seventy-five percent of those infected with the virus will develop chronic hepatitis and half of those people will develop cirrhosis of the liver (Turkington 9). The hepatitis C virus is sometimes referred to as the “Hidden Epidemic” because an estimated four million people are infected with it and symptoms may not show until twenty years later (Grady). It is also the leading cause of liver transplantation in the United States (Bushie). This virus affects so many people and we should all learn and study more about it to hasten its spread. Hepatitis is a rather new virus to the science world, but it has been around for a very long time. Before scientists knew about hepatitis C, they had discovered A and B types, so when they found C they called it non-A non-B (Turkington 5). The virus was discovered in 1987, but not until after 1990 was blood tested for hepatitis, causing many people to receive and contract the virus (Turkington 5). Hepatitis is thought to have originated in the Far East because of the diversity and number of people infected in that location (Turkington 6). Strains of hepatitis are found in Thailand, which has led researchers to believe it mutated in Asia to form all its genotypes (Turkington 6). There are five types of the hepatitis virus and they are A, B, C, D, and E (Hoofnagle). Hepatitis C is caused by a single-stranded virus with a core of ribonucleic acid (Turkington 10). Hepatitis C has so many genotypes that the virus cannot be detected by the immune system (Turkington 11). It has six separate genotypes and each genotype has three to four subtypes (Turkington 11). Every genotype of the virus is restricted to different regions of the world (Turkington 11). The most common genotypes of hepatitis C in North America are the 1a and 1b genotypes (Turkington 11). The genotype 1b is

Dark Matter

2001-06-25T14:00:00-04:00
There is perhaps no current problem of greater importance to astrophysics and cosmology than that of "dark matter". The controversy, as the name implies, is centered on the notion that there may exist an enormous amount of matter in the Universe that cannot be detected from the light that it emits. The evidence of dark matter is from the motions of astronomical objects, specifically stellar, galactic, and galaxy cluster/supercluster observations. The basic argument is that if we measure velocities in some region, then there has to be enough mass there for gravity to stop all the objects from flying apart. When such velocity measurements are done on large scales, it turns out that the amount of inferred mass is much more than can be explained by the luminous mass. Hence we infer that there is non-luminous matter in the Universe, i.e. there is dark matter. Dark matter has important consequences for the evolution of the Universe. According to standard cosmological theory, the Universe must conform to one of three possible types: open, flat, or closed. A parameter known as the "mass density" - that is, how much matter per unit volume is contained in the Universe - determines which of the three possibilities applies to the Universe. In the case of an open Universe, the mass density (denoted by the Greek letter Omega) is less than unity, and the Universe is predicted to expand forever. If the Universe is closed, Omega is greater than unity, and the Universe will eventually stop its expansion and recollapse back upon itself. For the case where Omega is exactly equal to one, the Universe is delicately balanced between the two states, and is said to be "flat". Dark matter candidates are usually split into two broad categories, with the second category being further sub-divided: baryonic and bon-baryonic. Then, under non-baryonic, hot dark matter (HDM) and cold dark matter (CDM) are its types. Depending on their respective masses and speeds, CDM candidates have relatively large mass and travel at slow speeds (hence "cold"), while HDM candidates include minute-mass, rapidly moving (hence "hot") particles. As leading possible candidates for baryonic dark matter, there are black holes (large and small), brown dwarfs (stars too cold and faint to radiate), sun-size MACHOs, cold gas, dark galaxies and dark clusters, to name only a few. The range of particles that could constitute nonbaryonic dark matter is limited only slightly by

The Present State of Neutrino Masses

2001-06-25T14:00:00-04:00
One of the current questions in physics is whether or not neutrinos have mass and what this mass is. Neutrinos are subatomic particles that have no electrical charge and interact only via the weak nuclear force. They are products of radioactive decay processes, and thus are produced abundantly in our Sun, our atmosphere, and in other astrophysical sources such as supernovae and active galactic nuclei. Millions and millions of them are crossing through the Earth every second, but only very few of them will interact with the Earth. In practice you can say they are invisible. But fortunately we can detect them by building a very large detector and waiting long enough. There are several reasons to search for a possible non-zero neutrino mass. Fermion masses in general are one of the major mysteries/problems of the standard model. Observation or nonobservation of the neutrino masses could introduce a useful new perspective on the subject. Nonzero neutrino masses are predicted in most extensions of the standard model. They therefore constitute a powerful probe of new physics. Also, there may be a hot dark matter component to the universe. If so, neutrinos would be (one of) the most important things in the universe. The observed spectral distortion and deficit of solar neutrinos is most easily accounted for by the oscillations/conversions of a massive neutrino. The largest neutrino detector is the Super-Kamiokande and is located in the Kamioka Mine, about 200 km north of Tokyo. It is water cerenkov detector, which means it is a large (40 meters diameter by 40 meters tall) tank of ultra-pure water viewed by thousands of sensitive phototubes. Super-Kamiokande will address some of the most important open questions in physics today, such as: why does the Sun appear to produce only half as many neutrinos as theory would predict? Do neutrinos have mass? Do protons decay, as predicted by Grand Unification Theory? One source of neutrinos are nuclear reactions. Inside our Sun nuclear reactions are occurring on a gigantic scale. Lots of neutrinos are produced. There are enough of them, that when they reach the Earth they can still be detected. Since physicists can calculate how many of them should be seen, there is a big problem because we see too few, roughly two times too few. This is so called the solar neutrino problem. There can be several solutions to the puzzle. One is that we do not

Fiber Optics

2001-06-23T14:00:00-04:00
Fiber optics is a cable that is quickly replacing out-dated copper wires. Fiber optics is based on a concept known as total internal reflection. It can transmit video, sound, or data in either analog or digital form . Compared to copper wires it can transmit thousands of times more data (slide 2) . Some of its general uses are telecommunications, computing, and medicine. The very first “fiber” was made in 1870 by the British physicist John Tyndal. In this experiment that he showed to the Royal Society he placed a powerful waterproof lamp inside a tank of water, which had closed pipes coming out the sides. When he opened up the pipes so water could flow, to the amazement of the crowd, the light totally internally reflected inside the beam of water as it fell to the ground. One of the very first forms of optical communication was done Paul Revere in his famous Paul Revere’s ride. Here he used the well-known signal “one if by land, two if by sea.” Although primitive, this was still optical communication and we must give him credit for it. Another contender was Alexander Gram Bell and his photophone (slide 3). With this device, one person would speak into a microphone causing a mirror to vibrate. Then sunlight would reflect off the vibrating mirror and hit another mirror 200 meters away. This mirror would then cause a selenium crystal to vibrate and sound would come out the other end. This seems interesting, but unfortunately this did not work very well at night, in the rain, or when someone simply walked in front of it. In the summer of 1970, scientists at the Corning Glass Works developed a single mode fiber with a loss of 20 dB/km. (Slide 4) This corresponds to over a 99% loss over 1 km, which may seem useless, but at the time it was a spectacular breakthrough. On October 30, 1986, a fiber across the English Channel became operational. In December 1988, the TAT-8, the first transatlantic fiber cable became fully functional. Currently, the standard losses of fiber are within 0.5 – 0.25 dB/km with a data transfer rate of 1 trillion bits per second. The basic setup for a fiber optical system is that first, a transmitter receives an electrical signal, usually from a copper wire. (Slide 5) The transmitter drives a current on a light source and the light

Piracy in the 21st Century

2001-06-15T14:00:00-04:00
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary defines piracy as, “an act of robbery on the high seas or an act resembling such robbery” (885). From this we can define software piracy as an act of robbery on the information superhighway. Many people do not see it as such. Even though the average person would never consider going into a convenience store and stealing a stick of gum, many have no qualms about stealing thousands of dollars worth of software. In a study done by the Canadian Alliance Against Software Theft, 43 percent of adult Canadians who were asked thought that pirating software for personal use was OK. This feeling has come about in several ways. Older computer users, with Unix backgrounds, remember many of the applications they used as freeware. Software pirating also results from users having access to freely downloadable applications, evaluation copies, and public betas. This leads users to believe that all software is free. While many downloadable applications carry expiration dates, many companies rely on “nag messages” rather then a disabling mechanism. These messages are easily ignored and allow the user to continue use of the product (Stevenson 18). Despite these factors global software piracy rates are on the decline. However, the number of illegal applications installed continues to grow, according to the Business Software Alliance (BSA) and the Software and Information Industry Association (SIIA). In 1998, 38 percent of applications in use globally were pirated, down from 49 percent in 1994. Yet, 231 million business software applications installed were pirated, 2.5 million more than in 1997. This led to an eleven billion dollar loss in revenue by software companies (Paquet). Jason Penchoff, a BSA spokesperson, states, “Software piracy affects company productivity and jobs. For every free package or unlicensed package of software, companies are losing money. If an automaker lost 38 percent of its revenue, there would be a huge outcry” (qtd. in). So how are users obtaining all this illegal software? Consumers now have the ability to purchase goods from their computer. Generally when we think of electronic commerce, we mostly think of business to consumer transactions. But one of the most rapidly growing developments in electronic commerce is the consumer-to-consumer market. The rapid growth of Internet auction sites has created shopping opportunities for online consumers that were never before available. According to SIIA’s Piracy on Internet Auction Sites, “consumer-to-consumer online auction revenue will climb from $4 billion in 1999

Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD)

2001-06-12T14:00:00-04:00
Introduction: Multiple personalities is a dissociative condition in which an individual’s personality is apparently split into two or more distinct sub-personalities, each of which may become dominant at different times. People with multiple personality disorder suffer from internal chaos, roller-coaster emotions and terrible memories. They also present confusing confusing and contradictory images to their family and friends. But in spite of all this, MPD is a treatable disorder. In theory, the developmental process behind MPD is a result of resorting to a mental escape from a traumatic situation. This is essentially achieved when neither fleeing nor fighting can be used as a defense option, which leads the individual to distance themselves from the incident to retain control. This distancing mechanism is characterized by detachment from the self or surroundings, excluding unwanted or unneeded feelings from awareness, and partial or total amnesia from the emotions associated with the traumatic event. In essence, this process allows the individual to separate the traumatic memories from ordinary consciousness to preserve some areas of healthy functioning. This entire process is referred to as dissociation. Dissociation serves as an adaptive function, as it allows the individual to escape from the traumatic event while it is underway. However repeated reliance on dissociative defenses can lead to the inability to properly process information from past and future events. It is theorized that the repeated use of dissociation can lead to the development of a series of separate mental states, which may eventually take on an identity of their own. The Cause: Multiple personalities stem from very traumatic childhood events. Multiple personality disorder (MPD) is a dissociative disorder. Dissociation is normal everyday human activity. For example, you are dissociated when you lose track of time when you are watching a movie. You are also dissociative when you are daydreaming and lost in thought. Everyone dissociates to some extent, but it becomes a problem when it starts to interfere with your work, or the quality of your life. On the average, the onset of multiple personalities occurs at about four years of age. Everyone knows that children have wild imaginations. They use there minds to create playmates and wondrous scenarios. Using this ability, a child who is constantly tortured and terrified over a period of time may create other children within themselves to survive and endure the pain. These other personalities are called “alters” and may develop permanency, so that the identity of a

Internet Shopping - Good or Bad?

2001-06-02T14:00:00-04:00
Shopping on the Internet is increasing but would you do business this way? The Internet?s popularity has dramatically escalated over the past few years and has become an integral part of daily life. It has wide spread uses ranging from, obtaining information, downloading files, business advertisement to Internet commerce, which plays a major part in Internet practice. Our social structure is pressuring society to connect to the Internet, with schools world wide becoming more Web based and universities now have lectures, which can be solely viewed over the Internet. Within the next few years the potential and capabilities of the Internet are endless. With that in mind the following assignment will examine a continuously flourishing component of the Internet, Internet shopping. Although Internet shopping is on the increase, it will never surpass conventional shopping, as the ?experience of shopping? is lost, it is open to fraud and the ?try before you buy? concept does not occur. From this information, it could be stated, ?The promise of Internet shopping is drowning in a flood of deceit, customer dissatisfaction, fraud and misappropriation. The Internet is best known for being a information superhighway, not a superhighway to the shopping mall.? Shopping from the convenience and comfort of your own home may have its apparent advantages; no more standing in line, no more hassles. Currently people are using the Internet for shopping largely as it offers some benefits when compared with conventional shopping, for a narrow range of goods and services. Given that, there are still concerns about risks involved ? many issues from security of credit cards to privacy Purchasing products from the Internet has major disadvantages when compared to conventional shopping. A significant problem is you cannot see the store you are buying from. On the Internet, it can be difficult to know whether the business you are dealing with is honest or not. When your credit card number is given to a marketing site in order to purchase goods, there is no certain guarantee that it will be used for the purpose it was intended for. Many unscrupulous internet web sites, use promises of miracle cures, and other hoaxes in order to exploit their users in an effort to gain credit card numbers and use them, for their own personal gain. However many web sites are creditable, but the security of their web page then may be violated. (By ?Hackers?) When a user ?surfs? into

Paleontology

2001-05-27T14:00:00-04:00
(a 9th-10th grade essay) What Is Paleontology? Paleontology is he study of fossils, such as wood, bones, and shells. Those are the most common fossils, but there are also other types of things paleontologists search for. Such as soft tissues, tracks, and trails, and even coprolites which are fossil feces. Even though the fossils these people dig up are billions of years old, there is no minimum age for a structure to be a fossil. These paleontologists study the fossils they find to reconstruct the history of the Earth

The History and Development of Computers

2001-05-20T14:00:00-04:00
There is no noun with the ability to represent modern life other than computer. Whether the effect is negative or positive, computers control nearly every aspect of our everyday life. Computers have evolved from bearing the role of strictly computing to having the ability of completing unthinkable tasks. Supermarket scanners calculate our grocery bill while keeping store inventory; computerized telephone switching centers play traffic cop to millions of calls and keep lines of communication untangled; and automatic teller machines (ATM) let us conduct banking transactions form virtually anywhere in the world. All of this amazing technology started over five thousand years ago and continues to grow with an unknown culmination. Around five thousand years ago in Asia minor, a simple machine bearing a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack such as ones found in a pool hall may be considered the first computer. It is known as the Abacus and is still in use today. Merchants used the Abacus to record their barter transactions. Its popularity began to fall when the use of paper and pencil spread particularly throughout Europe, its importance diminished. The next significant advance of computing started with a man named Blaise Pascal, nearly twelve centuries ensuing the invention of the Abacus. Pascal was an eighteen year-old son of a French tax collector in the early seventeenth century. To ameliorate his father’s duties, Pascal assembled a brass rectangular box, also called a Pascaline, using eight movable dials capable of adding sums up to eight figures long. Pascal’s system is all based upon the number ten. For example, as one dial passed nine, the next dial turned to represent one in the tens column as the original dial returned back to zero. The Pascaline’s only drawback was its limitation to addition. A German mathematician and philosopher named Gottfried Wilhem von Leibniz improved the Pascaline in 1694 by inventing a machine with the ability to not only add, but multiply as well. Leibniz’s mechanical multiplier preserved Pascal’s idea of using dials and gears refined form Pascal’s original Pascaline from the study of his notes and drawings. The refined model used a stepped-drum gear design rather than Pascal’s flat gear design, however; the widespread use of the mechanical calculator did not take effect until 1820. Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar was another great inventor whose efforts assisted in the evolution of the simple computer. Colmar was a Frenchman whom invented

Kings Park Psychiatric Center

2001-05-20T14:00:00-04:00
The Kings Park Psychiatric Center has had a large effect on the social changes of Long Island. A small town grew larger and prosperous from the direct effect of this State hospital from the time of 1885 to the present. The history of the town, the patients and court cases held, and the concluding plans for the land after its closing have all had a significant mark on the social changes of the town. The first hospital was built in a quiet farming town later named Kings Park. In 1885, officials of what was then the city of Brooklyn established the Kings County Farm on more than 800 acres to care for the mentally ill. Kings Park was only a small part of what would later become a giant chain of connected mental hospitals on Long Island, each with over 2,500 patients at one time.(Bleyer,2) As new buildings went up at Kings Park, so did the patient population. At the turn of the century, Kings Park in just 15 years had grown to, 697 patients and a staff of 454. This dramatic increase had given the hospital a larger population than the rest of the Town of Smithtown. (Sarhaddi) The hospital was very equipped; therefore, not very dependant on the rest of Long Island. All the hospitals built around this time prided themselves on being self-sufficient farm communities. At Kings Park, the three wooden houses grew into more than 150 permanent buildings, including a bakery, Laundromat, amusement hall, bandstand, library, furniture repair shops, and nursing school. Most of the people who lived in Kings Park worked at the Psychiatric Center. Many of them were Irish immigrants brought from their native land more than 50 years ago by relatives who worked at the mental hospital on the Long Island Sound and who had promises of jobs for them too. (Bleyer) During World War II, when many employees joined the armed forces, Central Islip recruited black workers from the Carolinas, which led to cultural changes in the mix of the community. This developed distinct differences between certain areas of race such as African American, Hispanic, and white neighborhoods. Minority groups not allowed to fight in the war or not taken to fight were offered jobs to work at the hospitals. The Kings Park Psychiatric Hospital hadn’t really become very over-populated until the 1960’s. (Sarhaddi) The Kings Park Psychiatric Center was in its Heyday in the 1960’s.

Down Syndrome

2001-05-13T14:00:00-04:00
Sometimes when meiosis ( the division of reproductive cells ) occurs, chromosomes may be lost, left behind, or too many may be passed on, resulting in the birth of a child with a genetic or congenital defect or disease. One of the most common of these genetic disorders is Down syndrome. This disorder takes its name from Dr. Langdon Down, who was the first to describe it formally, in 1866. Down syndrome is a condition marked by abnormal physical and mental development that is caused by a genetic defect. This genetic defect is caused by an extra chromosome. People born with Down syndrome have 47 chromosomes compared to the normal amount of 46, 23 chromosomes inherited from each parent. This extra chromosome originates more often in the mother's egg than the father's sperm. Chromosomes are individual, large DNA molecules in a cell nucleus. They contain the genes along with structures that hold the DNA and aid it in expressing heredity by orchestrating cellular operations. Down syndrome is one of the most common chromosomal abnormalities, occurring in about 1 out of 800 births. However, the frequency of the disorder varies greatly according to the age of the mother. For women in their twenties the rate is 1 in 2,000 but it rises steeply to 1 in 100 by the time a woman reaches 40. Down syndrome is usually recognized soon after birth because of characteristic facial features such as a flattened nose, upward slanting of the eyes, a large tongue that often protrudes from a small mouth, a small, rounded head, and a short stature. Other symptoms that might only be noticed by doctors include congenital malformations of the heart of gastrointestinal system, flabby muscle tone and poor coordination due to poor control over the motor nerves, poorly functioning endocrine glands, narrow ear canals, low resistance to infection, weak vision, and misshapen teeth with thin enamel. All children with Down syndrome also have learning difficulties to some extent and there is a large variation in handicap. In some cases Down syndrome may be discovered before birth through a test known as amniocentesis in which fluid is taken from around the baby and the fetal cells are examined for the extra chromosome. People with Down syndrome are usually exceptionally happy, gentle, and loving. As children, they need loving care and extra attention to make sure that their minds are stimulated. Special teaching is

Acid Rain - The Deadly Destroyer

2001-05-12T14:00:00-04:00
What is Acid Rain? Acid rain is a form of precipitation that falls to the earth as rain. For rain to be acidic it has a pH level of less than 5.6. The corrosive nature of acid rain causes widespread damage to the environment. The problem begins with the production of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, natural gas, oil and other kinds of manufacturing. When these pollutants are in the air, they react with water and other chemicals, to form sulfuric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid and other pollutants. Once these pollutants are in the air, they can travel for many miles, and when rain clouds get to heavy to hold all the moisture they drop their deadly load of chemicals onto the earth in a form of rain, snow, hail or fog. In Eastern North America, throughout Europe, Japan, China, and Southeast Asia damage from acid rain has been widespread. Acid rain causes nutrients from the soil to disappear, causes trees to grow slower, causes aquatic life in lakes to die off and as well wildlife. Acid rain also affects cities by corroding everything that the rain touches. Acid rain accelerates the natural wear and tear on structures such as buildings and statues. Acid rain also forms urban smog, which attacks the lungs, causing severe health problems for the elderly. Formation of Acid Rain The formation of acid rain starts off with the burning of fossil fuels. Burning is a chemical reaction, in which oxygen from the air combines with carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and other elements in the substance that is being burned. The new compounds that are being formed are gases called oxides. When sulfur and nitrogen are present in the substance being burned, their reaction with oxygen yields sulfur dioxide and various nitrogen oxide compounds. In the United States, 70 percent of sulfur dioxide pollution comes from power plants, especially those that burn coal. In Canada, oil refining and metal smelting, account for 61 percent of sulfur dioxide pollution. Nitrogen oxides enter the atmosphere from many sources, with vehicles emitting the largest share, 43 percent in the United States and 60 percent in Canada. When these chemicals are in the air, the sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides undergo a very complicated reaction with water vapor and other chemicals to yield sulfuric and nitric acid. The compounds that are now formed travel in the

Wetland Research Paper

2001-05-09T14:00:00-04:00
When most people think of wetlands the first thing that will pop into their mind will be visions of swamps and flooded plains. These marshy lands would seem to have no purpose, while in reality they are the most precious form of ecosystem that we have in America. Wetlands contribute to biodiversity, clean water, flood control, and provide a habitat for millions of species of plants and animals. Even with all this wetlands still face mass destruction, much like the rain forests they are just as productive and face similar rates of devastation (Mitchell, J. (1992, October). “Our Disappearing Wetlands” National Geographic, Pg 15). It really is hard to get someone passionate about a mosquito-infested piece of swamp that seems just to be there to take up space and look bad. This is why wetlands are not backed by too many people to prevent their destruction. The main causes of wetland devastation are all linked to man. Pollution, construction, and farming are what is destroying 300,000 acres of wetlands each year (David Allen, J 1995 Pg. 24). Pollution is one of the most potent forms of destruction in that a small amount can cause such damage to a wide variety to plants and wildlife. Construction is another threat because as the population grows the demand for affordable housing goes up. Also with a rise in population comes a demand for food, which leads the to last and most destructive threat to wetlands, farming. Farming is all the threats to wetlands rolled into one; it builds over hundreds of acres of land and pollutes it with fertilizers and herbicides. There are many misconceptions about wetlands that the public has due to the fact that there is not much public interest to save the wetlands. Well what exactly is a wetland? A lowland area, such as a marsh or swamp, that is saturated with moisture, especially when regarded as the natural habitat of wildlife, but in actuality a wetland is so much more than that. Depending on the type of wetland suggests the function it performs for the environment. We now realize that wetlands are important and valuable ecosystems. They are home to many beautiful and rare species. They filter runoff and adjacent surface waters to protect the quality of our lakes, bays and rivers. Wetlands also protect many of our sources of drinking water. They are the source of many commercially and

The Benefits and Curses of Technology

2001-05-03T14:00:00-04:00
“Many facts concur to show that we must look far deeper for our salvation than to steam, photographs, balloons or astronomy. These tools have some questionable properties. They are regents. Machinery is aggressive. The weaver becomes a web, the machinist a machine.” -Ralph Waldo Emerson Throughout the course of human history, men and women have taken steps to make life easier. Going back to the allegorical curse placed upon man in the Genesis scriptures, that he should “work by the sweat of his brow,” men have tried desperately, to some avail to annul that curse. Throughout the 20th century, men have succeeded in many aspects of technological change. The past 140 years, a short time in comparison with human history, have brought about some of the most noted technological changes. For instance, 140 years ago, there was no telephone. Photography was still in its infancy. The idea of an automobile was absurd, and the notion that a machine heavier than air could fly was scoffed. But advances in scientific discovery led to many changes in the thoughts and attitudes of humans as to what technology meant to changing society. But, somehow, this advancement in human achievement is sometimes viewed with scorn by some of the wisest among us. Has these advancements improved our lives, or just changed the nature of the problems we face? It is important to understand that the luxuries of yesterday somehow seem to become the necessities of today. Hot and cold running water, the in-house bathroom, the telephone, the television – these were all considered luxuries at one time. But now, they are deemed as necessities by many in society. They can’t be appreciated properly unless one was to view societies where these items do not exist, or their existence is scorned. In modern times, we tend to “work to eat,” and “eat to work.” It becomes a never-ending cycle that traps modern western societies into thinking that this is the ordinary. But in many other cultures, such as the indigenous Tarahumara tribes of south central Chihuahua, Mexico, where most of their society has remained “untouched” for hundreds of years, technology has not affected the culture. The society of the Tarahumara revolves around family and the success of the tribe and village. In American and other western societies, Americans continue to try and “rise among the ranks” in view of possessions. The culture has become enslaved to the

NASA Mars Missions

2001-05-03T14:00:00-04:00
“The United States is justified in spending billions of dollars on NASA space missions to Mars.” Throughout the course of history, man has dreamed of stepping foot on another planet. The advances in technology in the 20th century have allowed man to do what at one time was considered unthinkable for millenniums before. With the advent of the modern space program in the early 1950’s, NASA has performed many inconceivable feats. They have sent and returned men to space. They’ve set up space stations orbiting the earth. They have allowed men to land on the moon, collect samples, and then return to the earth. They have sent spacecraft to explore comets and other planets. They have even sent space probes outside the known walls of this solar system. Recently, NASA has been spending billions of dollars in researching our second nearest planet, Mars. In understanding the scientific importance that such research can mean, the United States is justified in spending this money on NASA space missions to Mars. President John F. Kennedy said in 1961 that he believed that the United States could put a man on the moon before the end of the decade. Unfortunately, he never lived to see this prophetic feat performed. But in July of 1969, Neil Armstrong stepped foot on the moon before live audiences around the world. As he stepped out on this extraterrestrial surface, he stated the now famous words, “That was one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” But why was Kennedy so adamant about sending men to the moon? What significance could such a feat serve in our lives? Of course, we lived in a different time then. Many believed our effort to send a man to the moon was just an attempt to display the philosophical superiority of capitalism over communism during the height of the Cold War. If America could send a man to the moon before the Soviets, then perhaps, it was thought, that the world would come to understand that our capitalistic form of government allows scientific advancement much faster and better than a communist or socialist form of government. No doubt, the United States was involved with a “space-race” that was much more political in nature than technological. But perhaps President Kennedy saw something else. Perhaps he saw the benefits of such a feat in realms other than just political or philosophical. While

Ocean Deep

2001-04-30T14:00:00-04:00
Snelgrove and Grassle in The Deep Sea: Desert and Rainforest published in Oceanus, volume 38 in 1995 argue that the popular belief that the deep sea is little more than an “ocean desert” is a pure fallacy. Contrary to such thinking a multitude of benthic organisms dwell on the ocean bottom; despite the frigid temperatures and high pressure, a large heterogeneity of creatures, rivaling in variety and number those inhabiting tropical rainforests, thrive in this environment. The “analogy of the ocean desert” arose from the technologically inadvanced photographs and sampling equipment prior to the 1960’s (25). However, it was during that decade that WHOI biologists Sanders and Hessler, employing an epibenthic sled, produced extremely varied samples of organisms from deep-sea communities. The epibenthic sled permitted researchers to observe organisms that had previously gone unnoticed; unknown to the scientific community was a varied population of macrofaunal benthos inhabiting the bottom sediment, in addition to new species of polychaetes, crustaceans, and mollusks. Further sampling in the 1980’s, with the use of a box corer, revealed an astoundingly heterogeneous population of benthic organisms equal, or perhaps more expansive in variety than the number of species residing in the tropical rainforests. Therefore, though the deep-sea may physically resemble a desert with its “large expanses of . . . gently rolling contours of mud or sand with little visible life,” in reality it is an ecosystem teeming with life (27). Such diversity was most noteably evidenced by a sample taken from an area no larger than seven feet by seven feet off the coast of Charleston, South Carolina where a total of 1,597 divergent species were recovered from the ocean bottom in a single sampling. The heterogeneity among species is also apparent with respect to both “space and time” (28). Observations have revealed that different species dwell in different patches along the ocean bottom; this patchwork of species is what, in effect, provides all species in the deep-sea with adequate sustenance. Phytoplankton blooms, sinking fish carcasses, pieces of wood, pieces of seaweed, disturbances created by fish feeding, and the polychaete fecal mounds all create microhabitats within the larger habitat of the ocean bottom; different species derive sustenance from different patches or microhabitats generated by such activities. In addition, seasonal changes and the passage of time affect these microhabitats and thus, those organisms present in each. Therefore, it is the heterogeneity of the deep-sea habitat with its mosaic

Biodiversity

2001-04-30T14:00:00-04:00
Biodiversity is described by Ruth Patrick as, “the presence of a large number of species of animals and plants…”(Patrick 15). In other words, biodiversity is the term for the measure of the variety of different species that do exist still on our plant. These species can range from the simplest bacteria to the very complex primates. Biodiversity can relate locally or globally. For example the Southern New England forest contains 20 or 30 tree species while in the rainforest of Peru there are hundreds of species of trees (Patrick 15). There are also further ways to view biodiversity and that is in levels. These levels can be the “diversity of higher plants, number of species, or expressed as sheer weight (biomass)” (Patrick 15). Biodiversity is different is each part of the world. Not every part of the world contains the same amount of creatures yet there are parts of the world that might contain similar amounts. These regions of the world have similar weather patterns and therefore similar species will develop there but they are not necessarily the same. One of the more important regions of the world that contain a large amount of biodiversity is the tropical rainforest region. “The forests comprise roughly 7% of the dry land surface of Earth and may hold more than 50% of all species” (Patrick 15). Yet us as humans do not know all of the creatures and organisms that live on this planet at all. We only have discovered, in one way or another, about 1.4 million species yet the number that is estimated is about 10-100 million (Patrick 15). The unknown species that do exist on this world can have many and countless benefits to the human race. A good example can be the rosy periwinkle, which is a plant found on the island of Madagascar, helped cure the Hodgkin’s disease and lymphocytic leukemia. (E.O. Wilson 3). Another can be the cyclosporin that was found in an obscure Norwegian fungus that is the foundation for the organ transplant business (Wilson 3). There also exist countless other potential uses and numerous other benefits that can be found in nature. The only problem is that we do not know even half of the amount of life that exists on this planet and many of them are disappearing faster than we can discover. With the advancement of technology and the growing population go mankind, nature

Mobile Phones in Business

2001-04-16T14:00:00-04:00
Introduction to Mobile Phone Mobile Phone is a wireless device that emits RFR (radio-frequency radiation) to transmit data and allows people to communicate anywhere. It can be carried anywhere as long as there is a signal transmission. There are three types of Mobile coverage, which are: AMPS, GSM and CDMA AMPS (Analogue Mobile Phone System) It is an analogue signal and system for transmit data and be used for mobile communication. The strength of this system is it has a better network coverage than GSM. However it is the most insecure mobile phone. This system is also going to be closed in Australia until end of 2000 as the government states that analogue signal make the frequency too crowded. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) It is a digital system that converts from our voice to digital (pulse) and transmits it to air for mobile communication. The strength of this system is it is more secure than analogue system. On the other hand, the weakness is the signal is not as strong as analogue system. CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access) It uses a digital systems but it is not pulsed as GSM did. The strength of this system is it has the best signal receiver, and it is secure communication. However, it is just being introduced in Australia and the rest of the world.
Network Provider in Australia
Optus Optus stated that they have 93% population coverage, which means, the capacity of the network that Optus can carry is up to 93 % of total population. It also has strength, which it has the lowest congestion rate (making and receiving call) Telstra Telstra stated that they have 94% population coverage, which means they can carry up to 94 % of the total population. Their strength is they have better network signal compare to other competitors. Vodafone Vodafone have 91% population coverage. Their strength is they are international recognition so people will believe that they have more experienced worldwide. The market shares of these companies are as follow: Telstra 49%, followed by Optus 33 % and last by Vodafone 18%
The Users of Mobile Phones
Business People It is obvious that most of business people in Australia use Mobile Phone now. It can be seen from the street that almost every business people have a mobile phone. Rural Business People It is important that rural business people to be able to communicate to other people, as sometimes the lines connection to rural area is not available. Others It is also be

Search Engines

2001-04-16T14:00:00-04:00
There are currently over a billion pages of information on the Internet about every topic imaginable. The question is how can you possibly find what you want? Computer algorithms can be written to search the Internet but most are not practical because they must sacrifice precision for coverage. However, a few engines have found interesting ways of providing high quality information quickly. Page value ranking, topic-specific searches, and Meta search engines are three of the most popular because they work smarter not harder. While no commercial search engine will make public their algorithm, the basic structure can be inferred by testing the results. The reason for this is because there would be a thousand imitation sites, meaning little or no profit for the developers. The most primitive of searches is the sequential search, which goes through every item in the list one at a time. Yet the sheer size of the web immediately rules out this possibility. While sequential might return the best results, you would most likely never see any results because of the web’s inflammatory growth rate. Even the fastest computers would take a long time, and in that time, all kinds of new pages will have been created. Some of the older ‘spiders’ like Alta Vista are designed to literally roam randomly through the web using links to other pages. This is accomplished with high-speed servers with 300 connections open at one time. These web ‘spiders’ are content based which means they actually read and categorize the HTML on every page. One flaw of this is the verbal-disagreement problem where you have a particular word that can describe two different concepts. Type a few words in the query and you will be lucky if you can find anything relates to what you are looking for. The query words can be anywhere in a page and they are likely to be taken out of context. Content-based searches can also be easily manipulates. Some tactics are very deceptive, for example “…some automobile web sites have stooped to writing ‘Buy This Car’ dozens of times in hidden fonts…a subliminal version of listing AAAA Autos in the Yellow Pages”(1). The truth is that one would never know if a site was doing this unless you looked at the code and most consumers do not look at the code. A less subtle tactic is to pay to get to the top. For example, the

Genetic Engineering

2001-04-15T14:00:00-04:00
Accepting the Possibilities: A Research Paper on Genetic Engineering Science is a creature that continues to evolve at a much higher rate than the beings that gave it birth. The transformation time from tree-shrew, to ape, to human far exceeds the time from analytical engine, to calculator, to computer. But science, in the past, has always remained distant. It has allowed for advances in production, transportation, and even entertainment, but never in history will science be able to so deeply affect our lives as genetic engineering will undoubtedly do. With the birth of this new technology, scientific extremists and anti-technologists have risen in arms to block its budding future. Spreading fear by misinterpretation of facts, they promote their hidden agendas in the halls of the United States congress. Genetic engineering is a safe and powerful tool that will yield unprecedented results, specifically in the field of medicine. It will usher in a world where gene defects, bacterial disease, and even aging are a thing of the past. By understanding genetic engineering and its history, discovering its possibilities, and answering the moral and safety questions it brings forth, the blanket of fear covering this remarkable technical miracle can be lifted. The first step to understanding genetic engineering, and embracing its possibilities for society, is to obtain a rough knowledge base of its history and method. The basis for altering the evolutionary process is dependant on the understanding of how individuals pass on characteristics to their offspring. Genetics achieved its first foothold on the secrets of nature's evolutionary process when an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel developed the first "laws of heredity." Using these laws, scientists studied the characteristics of organisms for most of the next one hundred years following Mendel's discovery. These early studies concluded that each organism has two sets of character determinants, or genes (Stableford 16). For instance, in regards to eye color, a child could receive one set of genes from his father that were encoded one blue, and the other brown. The same child could also receive two brown genes from his mother. The conclusion for this inheritance would be the child has a three in four chance of having brown eyes, and a one in three chance of having blue eyes (Stableford 16). Genes are transmitted through chromosomes, which reside in the nucleus of every living organism's cells. Each chromosome is made up of fine strands of deoxyribonucleic acids,

Argentine Horned Frog

2001-04-11T14:00:00-04:00
Argentine Horned Frog (Ceratophrys ornata) CLASSIFICATION: The Argentine Horned Frog comes from the Leptodactylidae kingdom. Some of it’s closest

Mass, Volume, and Density Lab

2001-03-29T14:00:00-04:00
Mass, Volume, and Density Lab The purpose of this lab was is to find the mass and volume of an object. Then to find the density of the object using the measurements of the mass and volume. Equipment: scale graduated cylinder Hazards: dropping object into graduated cylinder too fast may cause it to break Procedure: First get out the equipment that will be needed. Make sure to have about 5 objects that can fit inside a graduated cylinder easily, preferably

Alternatives to Internal-Combustion Engines

2001-03-25T14:00:00-04:00
In the past decade there has been a great deal of worrying about what will happen when the world’s oil supply becomes depleted. The main reason for concern is that almost all of the automobiles in use now require an oil based gasoline to run their internal-combustion engines. In the next few decades it is predicted that all of the world’s oil will have already been mined, and combustion engines will be unable to function. For this reason many companies such as Ford, Mercedes-Benz, Chrysler, Toyota, BMW, and others have started to create engines that do not require oil based gasoline. Such engines include the battery-powered engine and the hydrogen-powered engine. These engines require different fuels and all have their own good and bad qualities. This essay will describe these engines and how they work. The battery-powered engine is run using solely battery power. The battery-powered engine, along with all the other engines mentioned in this essay pollute much less than the combustion engine. The battery-powered engine is more efficient than the combustion engine for a variety of reasons. One reason includes how the electric motor is directly connected to the wheels; this lets the vehicle consume no energy while the car is at rest or coasting. Another way the battery engine is more efficient than the combustion engine is the fact that the battery engine converts more than 90 percent of the storage cell energy into driving force, while the combustion engine converts only a mere 25 percent of the energy in a liter of gasoline into driving force. The battery-powered engine also has its drawbacks. What is keeping this engine from being mass-produced is the lowness of energy storage that it has. Today’s technology only allows battery-powered vehicles to drive around 120 miles until its needs to be recharged. This number will obviously increase as new technology is invented. Along with the small distance the battery engine can operate, its takes several hours to recharge. The battery-powered engine cannot operate under the same rechargeable battery its entire life; the battery must eventually be replaced. The battery is expensive, but does not need changing very often. The price of gasoline it requires to run a combustion car for as long as it takes a battery-powered car to run-down a battery, is about equal to the price of a battery. Primarily hydrogen cells fuel the hydrogen-powered engine. The fuel cells inside the

Bonobo Chimpanzee - 1st person essay

2001-03-25T14:00:00-04:00
A Day in the Life of a Bonobo Chimp Before I show you the first page in my daily journal I must first give you some insight about my kind, the pygmy chimps, or bonobos, as I prefer to be called. I prefer to be called a bonobo rather than a pygmy chimp, because my kind are not chimpanzees, we are practically humans, 99.6% genetically the same to be exact. So please do not refer to me as a pygmy chimp. Were as far from chimps, as chimps are from gorillas. Here is the lowdown on my fellow bonobos and I. Males and females look just about the same, except for the obvious, which will be talked about much more later in my story. My kind has black hair covering their entire body, excluding face, hands, and feet. Children have a white spot on their tail stub, while elders’ hair gets gray with age (another one of those human characteristics). Though we do share the same long arm, short leg characteristic as our inferior relatives, the chimps, we have a more slender body structure than them. We are much smaller than regular chimpanzees, where the ignorant name pygmy chimp comes from, about 2 ½ to 3 feet tall, but weigh between 65 and 90 pounds, males weighing more. In a daily meal depending on the season we eat everything from fresh fruit and honey to termites, worms, and even small reptiles and squirrels. When the season gets hot and dry we must eat the stems and roots of plants. From the humans I have talked to I have learned that my kind is endangered, or for all of the idiotic chimpanzees, there aren’t very many of us left. One woman has told me that we are endangered because of our high expectations of living standards. We wouldn’t think of living anywhere besides the secondary tropical lowland rainforests in Zaire. She told me another reason that my kind was endangered was because of something called, “poaching.” I had no clue what that meant, but after she explained it I was shocked to find that animals other than leopards hunted us. Finally before this female human left I asked her why she wasn’t afraid of me and my kind, and she told me that we seemed much more relaxed than any other animal she has ever seen. I though about this for only

Air Pollution

2001-03-23T13:00:00-04:00
When looking at air pollution, we can see that there are many types, one type is acid rain. Scientists have discovered that air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels mainly in power stations and industry in countries such as Germany, United Kingdom and other economically developed countries is the major cause of acid rain. Acidic deposition or acid rain as it is commonly known occurs when emissions of sulphur dioxide (so2) and oxides of nitrogen (no) react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen and oxidants to form various acidic compounds, sunlight further accelerates this process with the introduction of heat. These compounds then fall to the earth in either wet form (such as rain, snow, and fog) or dry form (such as gas and particles). The wind then blows these acidic particles onto buildings, cars, homes and trees. In some instances, these gases and particles can then eat and corrode away the objects which they settle on. There are many effects of acid rain all of which are very negative for the environment, one of these affects is the acidification of lakes and streams and trees at high elevations (for example, red spruce trees above 2,000 ft). acid rain primarily affects sensitive bodies of water those which rest atop soil with a limited ability to neutralize acidic compounds (called “buffering capacity”). Many lakes in the National Surface Water survey (NSWS) suffer from chronic acidity ,a condition in which water has a constantly low ph level. In some sensitive lakes in Scandinavia acidification has completely eradicated fish species, such as the brook trout leaving these lakes baron, in fact hundreds of lakes in Scandinavia surveyed by the NSWS have acidity levels indicative of chemical conditions for the survival of sensitive fish species. Acid rain has been also implicated into causing the degradation of forests in Scandinavia and Bavaria in Germany, especially in the highly elevated pine forests in the Norway’s mountainous regions, causing widespread destruction of trees and along with that the homes and habitats of thousand of animals which with the long term affects of continued acidic soil will never be replaced. There is also a concern about the impact of acid rain on forest soils. There is good reason to believe that long-term changes in the chemistry of some sensitive soils may have already occurred as a result of acid rain. As the acid rain moves through the soil it

Fraternity Hazing is Deadly

2001-03-11T13:00:00-04:00
Hazing (subjecting newcomers to abusive or humiliating tricks and ridicule) has always been seen as a secretive campus activity when it comes to fraternities and pledging. As a result, Dr. Mark Taff resorted in his article that, "..a series of 168 cases of injuries and deaths related to fraternity hazing activities...[occurred] in the United States between 1923 and 1982" (2113). Young college men are being hospitalized and even worse, dying, just for a couple of friends that give them a sense of belonging. The major causes of hazing are the students' wanting a sense of belonging in a big college campus, the college's infrequent knowledge of what occurs in fraternities, and the unwillingness of fraternities to change tradition. Since hazing has been around for more than a century, one cannot expect the practice of hazing to stop all together. It will probably take years before hazing perishes from the fraternity scene. Nevertheless, until an end is put to hazing, solutions can be used to make hazing less common, until it no longer exists. These solutions that may be able to put an eventual stop to hazing, in the long run, are better education about fraternity hazing, stricter laws to prevent hazing from occurring, and more intervention from college administrators. Stories of hazing incidents are all too common in the news media today. It would not be out of the ordinary, upon opening the newspaper, to read the testimony of some fraternity pledges "'We were taken to a deserted park and blindfolded...We sat on our knees for an hour. Then they began slapping us on the back of our necks, real hard, and then they started pouring hot wax down our back'" (Milloy CL). Also, an article stating that "...A sophomore at Alfred University in New York was locked in a car trunk with two others and told to drink a bottle of Jack Daniel’s, wine and a six-pack of beer, one wintry night in 1978. He died of alcohol poisoning and exposure" (O'Connor 32). Fraternities are getting away with hazing practices, every single day. If a stranger did this to a civilian, they would automatically be arrested and imprisoned. The humiliations of hazing are said to build bonds between pledges and fraternity brothers. According to fraternity beliefs, the theory goes, if you and a couple of friends go through fraternity initiations, drinking excessive amounts of beer and being beaten by

The Secret Life of Great White Sharks

2001-03-09T13:00:00-05:00
Great White Sharks are greatly misinterpreted as vicious man-eaters because of the media, movies, and people’s imaginations, but they are actually large fish who mistake people for seals and other marine life. What is a great white shark? The great white, among the least understood of Earth’s creatures, is an apex predator, meaning that it is at the top of the food chain with no natural predators. This means great whites have their pick of food when it comes to selecting their prey (Klimley 15). Carcharodon carcharias, better know as the great white shark, have existed as a group for over 350 million years (Long). Its name means “ragged-toothed” (Gorman 10). The largest white shark on record was 21 feet long and weighed 7302 pounds. Its ancestors, now extinct, were three times this size, with teeth that were six inches long (White Shark). Today sharks are represented by over 600 species (Long). Great whites are part of a grouping know as mackerel sharks, a grouping which includes the salmon, porbeagle, and maco shark (MacGregor 46). Unlike the true fishes, sharks do not have internal bone, but instead have a cartilaginous skeleton (Long). This stiff flexible material is found in the ridge of your nose and in your earlobes. Because cartilage does not leave fossil remains like bones, there are no fossils of ancient sharks- just their teeth (Klimley 56). Little is known about great whites because they are enormous, bulky, and hard to handle. And that’s when they’re dead. Their body temperature is sometimes ten to fifteen degrees [Celsius] warmer than the surrounding water, which makes them efficient predators in cool water (Gorman 15). The back of the shark is a dull gray color and the underside is colored white. The tail is crescent shaped. There are five gill slits on great white sharks. Studying a live great white shark up close and in detail is, for obvious reasons, practically impossible (Sanders 31). The great white is the only shark that can hold its head above water to see what is happening on the surface (MacGregor 47). It has been said that sharks do not swim through water as much as they “fly” through it with their torpedo like body (Gorman 25). The fins of a shark serve important roles in this action. As the shark moves the Caudal, back, fin to propel it forward, careful adjustment of the pectoral, side,

Differences In Animal Phyla

2001-03-05T13:00:00-05:00
Because they are grouped in the same kingdom, the nine animal phyla share the same fundamental characteristics- they are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes that obtain nutrients through ingestion, they lack cell walls, they have nervous tissue and muscle tissue, and they reproduce sexually and have a unique embryonic life cycle. However, the animal phyla have a great number of differences as well. Some are visible to the naked eye, while others are less obvious, and still more cannot even be seen after embryonic development. What are these differences, and how did they shape the development of the phylogenetic tree? In animals, the embryo becomes layered through the process of gastrulation, or the formation of the two layered, cup-shaped embryonic stage from a blastula. These layers are called germ layers. Most animals are triploblastic, meaning they have three germs layers. These are the ectoderm, the endoderm, and the mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outermost layers which forms the body’s covering and the central nervous system. The endoderm is the innermost germ layer. It forms the digestive tube and gives rise to most organs. The third layer, the mesoderm, exists between the endoderm and ectoderm. It forms the muscles and most other organs towards the upper layer of the animal. Diploblastic animals, or animals with only two germ layers, lack mesoderm. There are only two diploblastic phyla: Porifera, the sponges, and Cnidaria, the “bag animals.” All other animals are triploblastic. In fact, sponges are such simple animals that they lack even true tissue. They are in the parazoan category (parazoans lack true tissue). Sponges are the only animals that are parazoans- all other phyla are eumetaozoans, animals with true tissue. The presence or absence of a body cavity is important in distinguishing different phyla. A body cavity is a fluid lined space separating the digestive tract from the outer body wall. It can act as a shock absorber, protecting the organs, regulate circulation, and allow room for organ growth. Most animals that have a body cavity also have a complete digestive tract. Acoelomates lack a body cavity altogether. An example of an acoelomate is a flatworm. Pseuodocoelomates have a body cavity, but it is not completely lined with mesoderm. The roundworm is an example of a pseudocoelomate. The eucoelomates have a true body cavity. It is completely lined with mesoderm. A segmented worm, such as an earthworm, is an example of a eucoelomate. The

Sickel Cell Anemia

2001-02-27T13:00:00-05:00
Sickle Cell anemia is a group of inherited red blood cell disorders, or a collection of recessive genetic disorders characterized by a hemoglobin variant called Hb S. Normal red blood cells are round like doughnuts, and they move through small blood tubes in the body to deliver oxygen. Sickle red blood cells become hard, sticky and shaped like sickles used to cut wheat. When these hard and pointed red cells go through the small blood tube, they clog the flow and break apart. This can cause pain, damage and a low blood count, or anemia. There is a substance in the red cell called hemoglobin that carries oxygen inside the cell. One little change in this substance causes the hemoglobin to form long hard rods in the red cell when it gives away oxygen. These rigid rods change the red cell into a sickle shape. For such a miniscule mistake, the consequences are tragic. At the time of conception, a person receives one set of genes from the mother and a corresponding set of genes from the father. Sickle cell disease is a condition that is determined by a single pair of genes. The genes are those which control the production of hemoglobin in red cells. It is a member of the globin gene family, a group of genes involved in oxygen transport, and hemoglobin binds oxygen in the lungs and delivers it to the other tissues. Most people have two normal genes for hemoglobin. Some people carry one normal gene and one gene for sickle hemoglobin. This is called "sickle cell trait". These people are normal in almost all respects. Problems from having a single sickle cell gene develop only under very unusual conditions. People who inherit two genes for sickle hemoglobin (one from each parent) have sickle cell disease. It is believed that individuals with African and Mediterranean ancestry have unusually high frequency of sickle cell trait due to the reduced mortality from malaria infections when compared with individuals who do not carry the hemoglobin variant Red blood cells carrying the abnormal gene (hemoglobin S) travel normally through circulation until they are deoxygenated. When this happens the hemoglobin S molecules form long, rigid rods, causing the normally donut-shaped cells to stiffen and distort into a sickle shape. These sickle cells have a very hard time moving through the small capillaries. As blood flow slows, the cells lining the vessel

Goldenrod

2001-02-27T13:00:00-05:00
Goldenrod is common name for certain related plants of the composite family. The Canada goldenrod

The nature of disease causing organisms and the mechanisms employed to combat them

2001-02-25T13:00:00-05:00
The nature of DISEASE CAUSING ORGANISMS and the mechanisms employed by man to combat these organisms. What is disease? A disease is a disturbance in the normal structure or function of an organism, group of organisms or the entire body. Diseases affect different organisms in different ways, they may be temporary, they may be chronic, or they may be terminal. They may even be localized or widespread through an entire body. Many diseases have been eradicated, but, some have no cure. Humans and other vertebrates have a system of specific immunity to combat disease. Some disease causing organisms invade body tissues and then destroy them, while others setup a symbiotic relationship with the cells. Most communicable diseases are caused by microorganisms or larger parasites that are commonly called germs, most scientists call them pathogens. What kinds of disease are there, that are caused by organisms? -Infectious disease- caused by living organisms, can be passed by contact. -Viral disease- caused by viruses, difficult to treat because viruses are non-living -Fungal disease- usually cause mild infections, difficult to treat -Protozoan disease- the "tropical diseases" caused by protozoa -Worm infections- mostly in the tropics, worms inside body causing damage -Diseases can be caused by a wide variety of bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, and parasitic worms. Some sferre some disease causing organisms, and how do they affect plants? Plant diseases can be caused by microorganisms, parasitic flowering plants, nematodes, viruses, or adverse environmental conditions. Bacterial diseases are marked by symptoms such as soft rot, leaf spot, wilt of leaves and roots, cankers, leaf and twig blight, and gall formation. Most plant diseases are caused by fungi. Fungal diseases have been documented on since biblical times. Fungal diseases are characterized by leaf spots, ulcerous lesions, blights, powdery mildew, cankers, root rots, wilts, and club root. Viral diseases are infectious and spread largely by insects. All economic plants suffer from one or more viral diseases. Symptoms include mosaic patterns, yellowing of foliage, vein clearing, ring spots, stunting and premature death, malformations and overgrowth. Nematodes, or roundworms, are a large cause of disease in plants. They live in and cause damage to the roots, stems, leaves, and bulbs of plants. Non parasitic diseases are attributed to weather conditions. What are some disease causing organisms that affect animals? These diseases are of great importance to humans, they could affect animals that are used for, or produce food. Some of these diseases may even be transmitted to

How Safe are Mobile Phones?

2001-02-23T13:00:00-05:00
Millions of people own a mobile phone these days, and ever since they have been around scientists question the fact of they are safe or not. Do they cause tumors, earaches, mercury poisoning? All these health risks are mentioned in every article I found. But nowhere could I find anything that was sure if mobiles did cause all of the above. This is where science fails us. The problem is that mobile phones are still too new to know the long-term effects on human. Mobile phones give of a radiation of radio frequency round 10MHz to 300Ghz. But so do other appliances. Why does mobiles especially get put in the picture of being hazardous? Soon it will be clear whether the radio frequency emissions from mobiles cause health effect. Drivers who use there mobiles whilst driving are the only “health risk” that can be proven, the drivers get distracted and lose control over the vehicle. Technology invented something for this, hands-free sets. But now the question is do those hands free sets really solve the problem? Researchers now are looking at if the hands free sets don’t cause other problems. A report from the magazine “which?” said that hands free kits raised levels if radiation to the head from mobile phones by up to three and a half times. The consumer association immediately stressed that it had done no research into this whether this radiation could cause damage to the brain. That just proves that whenever there has been research a report is released to prove that research wrong. Probably is done not to cause any chaos. Mobiles are said to cause brain tumors, they say this because there was found to be more tumors of the same kind amongst mobile phone users. Mobiles cause memory loss, radiation sickness. Mobiles can disturb your sleep pattern, according to the researchers from the university of Zurich, mobile phones increases brain activity during our sleep. A really strange result of the use of mobile phones is that mobile phones can release the poisonous mercury from fillings causing brain damage, scientist say this is due to the electrical fields given off by mobile phones can activate the mercury, giving off a gas. The fumes attach the nervous system causing conditions from depression, asthma to Alzheimer’s disease and multiple sclerosis. Some studies have suggested links between Radio frequency radiation and lymphoma, microwaves and memory loss, mobile phone

Bryophyte and Pteropyte Life Cycles - A Compare/Contrast

2001-02-10T13:00:00-05:00
Although Bryophytes and Pterophytes are both plant divisions with a common ancestor, they have little in common. While Bryophytes (mosses) are generally nonvascular and very short in height, Pterophytes (ferns) are vascular plants that usually grow much taller than mosses. While the dominant generation in mosses is the gametophyte, ferns exhibit the sporophyte generation. The details of their alternations of generation vary as well, although both have diploid and haploid stages. Alteration of generations is defined as a life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte. Meiosis in mosses produces haploid spores. This process occurs in a sporangium, a capsule in fungi and plants in which meiosis takes place and haploid spores develop. After fertilization, the sporophyte zygote grows out of the parent gametophyte. At the end of this stalk is the sporangium. Meiosis occurs and the haploid spores disperse. In ferns, the mature sporophyte (2N) has small spots on the undersides of its leaves. These are clusters of the Pterophyte sporangia, called sori. As in mosses, meiosis occurs in the sporangia, which then release spores, continuing the cycle. Mitosis in Bryophytes begins germination, or growth. It directly follows meiosis. As mitotic division continues, protonemata (1N) are formed. They grow until they are mature gametophytes. In Pterophytes, mitosis occurs directly after fertilization. The zygote divides and grows until it peeks out of the parent gametophyte, then it matures until it can release its own spores. Mosses exhibit the embryophyte condition, which means their gametes develop with protective sheaths of cells. This was an adaptation that allowed plants to become hardier. Mosses have two sexes of gametangia; the male gametangium is called an antheridium, and the female is called an archegonium. Eggs are produced in the archegonium and sperm in the antheridium. In order for fertilization to take place, the sperm must swim through moisture to the archegonium. This is why mosses must live in damp environments to survive- they cannot reproduce without moisture. The zygote develops within the archegonial cavity. Ferns are usually homosporous as well (there is a single type of spore; the gametophyte is bisexual). In ferns, the archegonia and antheridia mature at different times, which means there is cross fertilization between gametophytes and thus more genetic variation. Sperm from the antheridia swim to the archegonia where the zygote develops. Like mosses, ferns also need a

Hardy-Weinburg Equilibrium

2001-02-10T13:00:00-05:00
The Hardy-Weinberg theorem states that the frequency of alleles and genotypes in a population’s gene pool remain constant over the generations unless acted upon by agents other than sexual recombination. For example, take a population of mice that consists of 1,000 members. A specific allele, albino allele, is recessive within this species. 80% of the population expresses the normal phenotype- brown coloring, while the remaining 20% are albino. 640 members of the population have the genotype AA, 320 have Aa, and 40 have aa. If completely random mating were to occur, there would be an 80% chance that a gamete would bear the normal allele, A, and a 20% chance that the gamete would bear the albino allele, a. The resulting offspring will display the following genotype ratios: AA will have 64%, Aa 32% (the chance of the offspring having the A allele is 96%), and aa 4%. The offspring have the same genotype ratio as their parents. This example was one of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The next generation will express the same genotype ratio as their parents, and so on. But what exactly is needed to create Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? (Basically, a population in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium s not evolving in any way.) Five specific factors are needed to create Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium within a population- a very large population, isolation from other populations, no net mutations, random mating, and no natural selection. The first element needed to create Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is a very large population size. The larger the population, the less likely it is for genetic drift to occur. Genetic drift is a chance fluctuation in the gene pool that may change the frequencies of alleles. A large population can better represent the gene pool of the previous generation than a small one. In order to completely eliminate all chances of genetic drift, a population would have to be infinitely large. Thus, we can see here that perfect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, which has no changes in the frequency of alleles, would require no genetic drift at all, and genetic drift itself is only possible in a population of infinite size. There are two types of genetic drift- the bottleneck effect and the founder effect. Both severely decrease the variability within a population, altering the frequencies of alleles and thus making Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium impossible. If a disaster occurs in a population, killing off many members, the surviving members will not be representative of the

The Human Genome Project

2001-02-08T13:00:00-05:00
A genome is all the DNA in an organism, including it’s genes. Genes carry information for making all the proteins required by all organisms. These proteins determine, among other things, how the organism looks, acts, processes and fights infections. DNA is made up of four similar chemicals (bases, adenine , Thymine , cytosine , and guanine ) that are repeated millions or billions of times throughout a genome. The human genome has three billion base pairs. The order of these base pairs are extremely important and determine everything in an organism. The Human Genome Project started in the mid-1980’s and was discussed widely throughout the scientific community and public press in the last years of the decade. In the United States, DOE first and soon afterward NIH were the main research agencies within the US government responsible for developing and planning the project. By 1988, the two agencies were working together, and their relationship was formalized by the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding, to coordinate research and technical activities related to the human genome. The initial planning process culminated in 1990 with the publication of a joint research plan. The Human Genome Project’s ultimate goal is to discover all the more than 80,000 human genes and render them for further biological study. To facilitate the future interpretation of human gene function, parallel studies are being carried out on selected model organisms. Smaller goals include, to identify all the approximately 100,000 genes in human DNA, to determine the sequences of the three billion chemical bases that make up human DNA, to store this information in databases, to develop faster and more efficient sequencing technologies, to develop tools for data analysis, and to address the ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project. The massive amount of data and related technologies generated by the HGP and other genomic research presents a wide array of commercial opportunities. These opportunities range from medicine and food to energy and environmental resources. Older companies are racing to retool and newer companies are seeking parts in the information revolution with DNA at it’s core. IMB, Compaq, DuPoint, and other big pharmaceutical companies are among those interested in the potential for targeting and applying genome data. In HGP there are two types of sequences, the draft and the high quality. To get the draft sequence, scientist determine the order of base pairs in each chromosomal area at least four to

Schizophrenia

2001-02-07T13:00:00-05:00
Schizophrenia is not a single disease, but a broad category of mental illnesses. Schizophrenia is a psychiatry disorder where several structural disturbances occur in the brain. It normally takes place in the temporal and frontal lobes, changing the neural systems and affecting the neurotransmitters in charge of controlling the functioning that takes place in these areas. It is not a structural brain disease that shows up early on X-rays CAT scans, or EEGs. Schizophrenics also have defects in the handling of amino acids. Schizophrenia usually affects men while they are young and women later in their lives. Schizophrenia often starts out very slowly and progresses to a severely disabling mental illness. Early Schizophrenics tend to experience spontaneous dream like episodes with material that resembles art, myth poetry, and B-movies. Many Patients also show negative symptoms, such as decreased emotional arousal, mental activity, and social drive. Schizophrenia is often confused with split personality, but it is not the same, Though in reality schizophrenia means “split mind”. Many scientists believe there are four types of schizophrenia. First of all there is the simple or “undifferentiated” type, which is characterized by a gradual reduction in the external relations and interests. Next there is the “hebephrenic” or disorganized type, it is characterized by delusions and false perceptions. Then there is the “catatonic” type in which there is a state of inactivity and striking motor skills. Last there is the “paranoid” type which usually arises later in life, which is associated with illogical thinking, delusions of persecution ,or of grandeur. While these four specific types have not been universally accepted, it is the approach most commonly accepted by most psychiatrists. Schizophrenia crosses all socioeconomic, cultural, and racial boundaries. Different theories of the beginning of schizophrenia have centered on anatomical, biochemical, psychological, social, genetic, and environmental cause. The general view is that the schizophrenic types of reaction result from faulty adjustments to a variety of underlying conditions that may be either physical or psychological, or both. Treatments for schizophrenia may include replacing food with ENF, fortified with higher than usual intake of vitamins such as B1, B3, B6, B12, and mineral intake. Schizophrenia is a broad category of mental illnesses. It should not be thought of as one single disease, but as many mental diseases joint as one. It can be found in any race, sex, and social status of people. About one in every one-hundred people will

Cell Membrane/ Electron Transport Chain / Biochemical Pathway

2001-02-06T13:00:00-05:00
1. The cell membrane structure is vital to the life of the cell. The cell membrane is shaped as having a phosphate head at the very outer surface, and two fatty acid tails hanging from it. The membrane is double, so at the tip of the fatty acid tails, there are two more fatty acid tails attached to another phosphate head. This is what it looks like: The reason the cell membrane is shaped like this is mainly to control the water flow in and out of the cell. Water is very important to the cell: if too much water enters the cell, the cell will explode, and if too much water leaves the cell, the cell will shrivel up and die. This is how the cell membrane controls water flow: the phosphate heads are polar, and slightly attract water. However, the fatty acid tails in between are non polar, and repel water, so the fatty acid tails prevent too much water from entering or leaving the cell. With this tough membrane, there has to be a way for things to enter the cell. This is where the channel proteins come in. They act as gateways to the cell. There are many ways to enter the cell. Some ways require energy, while others don’t. The ways that require energy are put into a category called active transport, while the ways that don’t require energy are put into a category called passive transport. An example of active transport is the proton pump. The proton pump is an integral part of chemiosmosis, and it pumps protons from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. This requires energy since things like to move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. An example of passive transport is facilitated diffusion. This is very easy since the particle is moving from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration and through a channel protein made exactly for its size and shape. 2. These membranes are very important to the electron transport chain. This is because they house the membrane proteins that make up the electron transport chain. The two electron transport chains are similar in that they both make ATP by chemiosmosis, and they are different in the fact that they pump protons in different directions: the electron transport chain in the thylakoid layer pumps

Spontaneous Generation

2001-01-27T13:00:00-05:00
From the time of the Ancient Romans, through the Middle Ages, and until the late nineteenth century, it was generally accepted that life arose spontaneously from non-living matter. Such "spontaneous generation" appeared to occur primarily in decaying matter. For example, a seventeenth century idea for the spontaneous generation of mice required placing sweaty underwear and husks of wheat in an open-mouthed jar. Then, waiting for about 21 days, during which time it was said that the sweat from the underwear would penetrate the husks of wheat, changing them into mice. Although that idea may seem ridiculous today, that and other ideas like it were believed and accepted during that time, which was not too long ago. The first serious attack on the idea of spontaneous generation was made in 1668 by Francesco Redi, an Italian physician and poet. At that time, it was thought that maggots arose spontaneously in rotting meat. Redi believed that maggots developed from eggs laid by flies after observing that they had different developmental stages.. To test his hypothesis, he set out meat in a variety of flasks, some open to the air, some sealed completely, and others covered with gauze. As he had expected, maggots appeared only in the open flasks in which the flies could reach the meat and lay their eggs. This was one of the first examples of an experiment in which controls are used. In spite of his well-executed experiment, the belief in spontaneous generation remained strong, and even Redi continued to believe it occurred under some circumstances. The invention of the microscope encouraged this silly belief. Microscopes revealed a whole new world of organisms that appeared to arise spontaneously. It was quickly learned that to create "animalcules," as the organisms were called, you needed only to place hay in water and wait a few days before examining your new creations under the microscope. The debate over spontaneous generation continued for centuries. In 1745, John Needham, an English clergyman, proposed what he considered the definitive experiment. Everyone knew that boiling killed microorganisms, so he proposed to test whether or not microorganisms appeared spontaneously after boiling. He boiled chicken broth, put it into a flask, sealed it, and waited - sure enough, microorganisms grew. Needham claimed victory for spontaneous generation. An Italian priest, Lazzaro Spallanzani, was not convinced, and he suggested that perhaps the microorganisms had entered the broth from the air after

Technology is the seed of our destruction

2001-01-21T13:00:00-05:00
I agree and disagree with this statement. Technology has become very important in our society recently, and more people are getting involved with it, discovering new technology, and introducing it into society. The big question is whether or not society is ready for all the new techonological advancements. In some cases, the answer is yes. I am quite certain that people can handle TV, computers and radios fairly well. However, some technology would be way too advanced for us, such as a mind-reading room, perhaps? I think with the right knowledge and experience, individual people can handle any new technology that is introduced to them. People in large numbers tend to panic, and not deal with new things very well. It is my opinion that as a crowd of people grows larger, the collective intelligence of the crowd grows smaller. If advanced technology is introduced suddenly to a large number of people, then it will not work. If you introduce it slowly, it might work better. Some tehnology has helped us in many ways, such as: microscopes, electricity, and computers. Other technology has both helped and hindered us, such as the television and the car. Some technology has not helped at all, such as an electric fork or the electric car, the latter being too expensive for any normal person to run. Television is a big thing nowadays, and it has rotted the minds of children and adults alike. However, it has also improved communication, and if viewed in small time slots, it has enhanced some people’s intelligence. Some parents may sit their children in front of the television for hours while they go off somewhere to drink, etc. I don’t think this helps their children’s intelligence, and it eventually distances the children from the parents. For example, if you have children, and a television, what do you think would happen if you removed the TV from the house? The answer is simple: your kids would hate you for it. This is because they have grown accustomed to having the TV there as a distraction, or as entertainment. However, if you had never owned a TV, would your kids miss it? I think that, to a certain extent, technological advancement is a very good thing, because it can enhance and enrich our lives, but when it starts to take over the simple things in life and makes everything instant and electronic,

Dolphin Assisted Therapy

2001-01-16T13:00:00-05:00
Dolphin assisted therapy (DAT) is a highly controversial topic in the medical world. Is it medicine or simply recreation? Whatever you might believe, you cannot deny the fact that dolphins are loving and nurturing mammals with the ability to show compassion. Along with that ability for compassion, some may claim that there is actual science, which proves that interactions with dolphins have helped to treat many patients. Most of the patients in dolphin assisted therapy are children with autism, Down's syndrome, depression, and other neurological and movement disorders. (http://www.cnn.com/HEALTH/9803/28/dolphin.therapy/index.html) The theory behind dolphin assisted therapy is based on two philosophies. One of these is that the unconditional love and support a dolphin has to offer can benefit children and mentally ill patients in many ways. As with most animals, a dolphin seems to have human-like emotions, so a deep trusting bond can develop between patient and mammal. Some proponents of dolphin assisted therapy claim that the compassion a dolphin displays increases the patient’s self-confidence, because the patient is never judged. Increased self-confidence can lead to better social skills and academic improvement. (http://www.ulst.ac.uk/papa/dolphin.html) The second part of the theory involves a more scientific approach. It involves echolocation (echolocation: a high-pitched sound sent out by the dolphin that bounces off an object and returns to the whale. The dolphin interprets the returning echo to determine the object’s shape, direction, distance, and texture). (http://www.zoomdinasaurs.com/subjects/whales/glossary/Echolocation.shtml ) Some say that the dolphins’ use of sonar and echolocation produce changes in the body tissue and cell structure of patients who associate with them. Others believe that sound waves emitted by the dolphins in communication and echolocation stimulate healing. (http://www.idw.org/healing.html) A diminishing of anxiety and depression, enhanced learning in handicapped children, and pain relief are all attributed, by some researchers, to dolphin echolocation (http://www.interspecies.org/dolphin.human/research ). Echolocation is also thought to help increase attention span, develop motor skills, and develop better co-ordination in children (http://www.ulst.ac.uk/papa/dolphin.html). Although dolphin assisted therapy has many supporters, it also has a large number of critics. They say dolphin assisted therapy is an advertised miracle along with a hefty fee. Dr. Bernard Rimland, director of the Autism Research Institute in San Diego says, “There is no scientific evidence at all that using dolphins is helpful…. It’s a recreational thing.” Michael Westerveld, a pediatirc neuropsychologist at Yale University’s School of Medicine in New Haven, Connecticut, said “If there is any success, I’d be more likely inclined

Hydrogen Peroxide

2000-12-13T13:00:00-05:00
(H2O2), a colourless liquid usually produced as aqueous solutions of various strengths, used principally for bleaching cotton and other textiles and wood pulp, in the manufacture of other chemicals, as a rocket propellant, and for cosmetic and medicinal purposes. Solutions containing more than about 8 percent hydrogen peroxide are corrosive to the skin. First recognized as a chemical compound in 1818, hydrogen peroxide is the simplest member of the class of s. Of the several processes of manufacture, the principal ones involve reactions of oxygen from the air with certain organic compounds, especially anthraquinone or isopropyl alcohol. Major commercial grades are aqueous solutions containing 35, 50, 70, or 90 percent hydrogen peroxide and small amounts of stabilizers (often tin salts and phosphates) to suppress decomposition. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes into water and oxygen upon heating or in the presence of numerous substances, particularly salts of such metals as iron, copper, manganese, nickel, or chromium. It combines with many compounds to form crystalline solids useful as mild oxidizing agents; the best-known of these is sodium perborate (NaBO2H2O23H2O or NaBO34H2O). With certain organic compounds, hydrogen peroxide reacts to form hydroperoxides or peroxides, several of which are used to initiate polymerization reactions. In most of its reactions, hydrogen peroxide oxidizes other substances, although it is itself oxidized by a few compounds, such as potassium permanganate. Pure hydrogen peroxide freezes at -0.43º C (+31.3º F) and boils at 150.2º C (302º F); it is denser than water and is soluble in it in all proportions. The most important covalent peroxide is hydrogen peroxide, H2O2. When pure, this syrupy, viscous liquid has a pale blue colour, although it appears almost colourless. Many of its physical properties resemble those of water. It has a larger liquid range than water, melting at -0.43º C and boiling at 150.2º C, and it has a higher density (1.44 grams per cubic centimetre at 25º C) than water. The dielectric constant of pure H2O2 is, like that of water, quite high--70.7 at 25º C compared with a value of 78.4 for water at 25º C. However, adding water, which is miscible in all proportions, causes the dielectric constant to increase to a maximum value of 121 at about 35 percent H2O2 and 65 percent H2O. World production of H2O2 is well over one-half million tons per year, making it a major industrial chemical. Most industrial hydrogen peroxide is prepared by a well-conceived process introduced

Psychology

2000-12-11T13:00:00-05:00
1. The nature vs. nurture question: “How much of any given characteristic, behavior, or pattern of development is determined by genetic influence and how much is the result of the myriad experience that occurs after conception.” I believe that a person cannot develop properly through only one of the influences. Chapter 1 deals with controversies of nature vs. nurture. Chapter 2, Leaning Theory that falls under the nature issues of capacities and limitations and the cognitive theory which falls under the nurture issue of cultural and how it affects behavior. Chapter 3, is Genetic code, which is nature, genetic influences. Chapter 4, Development and Birth is nurture, environment and embryo influence. Chapter 5, is both nature and nurture. Dealing with subjects of motor skills and physical growth. Chapter 6, is cognitive learning, which is nurture. Chapter 7, is Psychosocial dealing with falling under nature. 2. A 4-year-old girl wearing lipstick, high-heels, and a flowery dress at all times. a. Behaviorism: observation of modeling. The girl sees her mother wearing the same thing so the girl trying to be like her mom or lady like because that’s how women dress. Identity. b. Psychoanalytic: Initiative, children want to take on adult like activities and roles. c. Sociocultural: Girls are taught through culture that it is proper for a lady to wear lipstick and high-heels so the girl follows the role. 3. Advantages of Medical Intervention : medication can dull the pain of childbirth. It can also speed up contractions and hurry childbirth. Makes birth safer by lowering stress, which is healthier form the mother. Also linked to lower death rates of mothers. Disadvantages of Medical Intervention: Takes away the natural aspect of childbirth. Mother or baby could be allergic to the medication. Medication is very costly. Higher death rate in mothers. 4. The book points out that day care infants may behave differently when their mothers are coming and going. Due to the fact they are separated and reunited on a regular bases. Not because of insecure attachment. The book also points out that any attachment is based on the crucial variable of the quality of the caregiver. The environment of the day care was also an issue A well run day care is good for infants. It was pointed out that high quality day cares are beneficial to the development of cognitive and social skills that will help infants grow up healthy. I’m for and against day cares.

The Element Iron

2000-12-10T13:00:00-05:00
Iron comes from the Latin word ferrum. From ferrum its symbol became Fe. The atomic number of iron is 26, and its atomic weight is 55.845. Iron is a magnetic, bendable, shiny white metallic element. Pure iron has a hardness that ranges from 4 to 5. It is soft and ductile. Iron

Are You Unique? (for Cloning)

2000-12-08T13:00:00-05:00
You have been told that you are unique. The belief that there is no one else like you in the whole world has made you feel special and proud. In the near future, this belief may not be true. The world was stunned by the news in the summer of 1995, when a British embryologist named Ian Wilmut, and his research team, successfully cloned Dolly the sheep using the technique of nuclear transfer. Replacing the DNA of one sheep’s egg with the DNA of another sheep’s udder created Dolly. Plants and lower forms of animal life have been successfully cloned for many years, but before Wilmut's announcement, it had been thought by many to be unlikely that such a procedure could be performed on larger mammals and life forms. The world media was immediately filled with heated discussions about the ethical implications of cloning. Some of the most powerful people in the world have felt compelled to act against this threat. President Clinton swiftly imposed a ban on federal funding for human-cloning research. Bills were put in the works in both houses of Congress to outlaw human cloning because it was deemed as a fundamentally evil thing that must be stopped. But what, exactly, is bad about it? From an ethical point of view, it is difficult to see exactly what is wrong with cloning human beings. The people who are afraid of cloning tend to assume that someone would, for example, break into Napoleon's Tomb, steal some DNA and make a bunch of emperors. In reality, infertile people who use donated sperm, eggs, or embryos would probably use cloning. Do the potential harms outweigh the benefits of cloning? From what we know now, they don't. Therefore, we should not rush placing a ban on a potentially useful method of helping infertile, genetically at-risk, homosexual, or single people to become parents. Do human beings have a right to reproduce? No one has the moral right to tell another person that they should not be able to have children, and I don't see why Bill Clinton has that right either. If humans have a right to reproduce, what right does society have to limit the means? Essentially all reproduction done these days is with medical help at delivery, and even before. Truly natural human reproduction would make pregnancy-related death the number one killer of adult women. Some forms of medical help

Bill Gates and the Microsoft Corporation

2000-12-05T13:00:00-05:00
Bill Gates - you love him, you hate him, maybe you should get to know him. The founder of the Microsoft has a lot of admirers and we can tell that for sure just by looking at his fortune. There are however people who not only despise him, but dedicate entire web-sites to criticizing him and his company; if you are one of those people you can check out www.onmacon.com (access will not be granted if you use Microsoft Internet Explorer). Some have even gone as far as throwing pies in his face... It’s an irony that one of the world’s smartest people didn’t even finish college. In 1975 he dropped out of Harvard to form an informal partnership with Paul Allen, “Micro-soft”; they invested all their time in BASIC, the first computer language program written for a personal computer. It wasn’t until November 1976 that Microsoft became official, when it was registered at the Office of the Secretary of the State of New Mexico, and only in 1977 did the partnership between Bill and Paul Allen become official. That’s also when they deliver their second language product, FORTRAN. In 1978, besides launching a third language, COBOL-80, Microsoft goes international by forming a strategic partnership with the founder of ASCII Corporation in Japan. The following year, the company also enters the European market and wins the ICP Million Dollar Award with the 8080 BASIC. This is an important indicative of the growth and acceptance of the PC industry. Starting with the early 80s, Microsoft starts expanding the product range from languages to operating systems and its first hardware product, the SoftCard, designed for the Apple II users. The newly incorporated business signs a contract with IBM, the first version of MS-DOS being the primary result. Unfortunately, this operating system wasn’t a very good one, requiring its users a thorough knowledge of command syntax. The company moves into the realm of business with an electronic spreadsheet program, the Multiplan. Also at this time, the Microsoft Local Area Network (MILAN) becomes functional, linking all of Microsoft’s in-house development computers. 1983 is an important year toward the development of a more user-friendly computer. In May the mouse is introduced, in September the Word processing program and in November Windows is announced, an extension of the MS-DOS operating system that provides a graphical operating environment. Windows allows a user to view unrelated application programs simultaneously and it

Microsoft and Windows Competitors

2000-12-05T13:00:00-05:00
A lot of people today, mostly microsofties, argue that Microsoft should not be split up since it isn’t really a monopoly; Windows has a lot of competitors out there and some of the companies that make them are even bigger than Microsoft. And that is actually quite true: Microsoft has only about 6% of the global software market and only 3% of the global computer market overall. There are several computer companies that make more than Microsoft, like Sun Microsystems and Compaq and there are at least nine other operating systems besides Windows, some of which you could even get for free. After three decades of use, the UNIX computer operating system from Bell Labs is still regarded as one of the most powerful, versatile, and flexible operating systems (OS) in the computer world. Its popularity is due to many factors, including its ability to run a wide variety of machines, from micros to supercomputers, and its portability -- all of which led to its adoption by many manufacturers. The UNIX operating system was designed to let a number of programmers access the computer at the same time and share its resources. While initially meant for medium-sized computers, the system was soon moved to larger, more powerful mainframe computers. As personal computers grew in popularity, versions of UNIX found their way into these boxes, and a number of companies produce UNIX-based machines for the scientific and programming communities. A major contribution of the UNIX system was its portability, permitting it to move from one brand of computer to another with a minimum of code changes. At a time when different computer lines of the same vendor didn't talk to each other -- yet alone machines of multiple vendors -- that meant a great savings in both hardware and software upgrades. It also meant that the operating system could be upgraded without having all the customer's data inputted again. And new versions of UNIX were backward compatible with older versions, making it easier for companies to upgrade in an orderly manner. UNIX comes with hundreds of programs that can be divided into two classes: integral utilities that are absolutely necessary for the operation of the computer, such as the command interpreter, and tools that aren't necessary for the operation of UNIX but provide the user with additional capabilities, such as typesetting capabilities and e-mail; the tools can be added or removed from a UNIX system,

Microsoft and Windows Competitors

2000-12-05T13:00:00-05:00
A lot of people today, mostly microsofties, argue that Microsoft should not be split up since it isn’t really a monopoly; Windows has a lot of competitors out there and some of the companies that make them are even bigger than Microsoft. And that is actually quite true: Microsoft has only about 6% of the global software market and only 3% of the global computer market overall. There are several computer companies that make more than Microsoft, like Sun Microsystems and Compaq and there are at least nine other operating systems besides Windows, some of which you could even get for free. After three decades of use, the UNIX computer operating system from Bell Labs is still regarded as one of the most powerful, versatile, and flexible operating systems (OS) in the computer world. Its popularity is due to many factors, including its ability to run a wide variety of machines, from micros to supercomputers, and its portability -- all of which led to its adoption by many manufacturers. The UNIX operating system was designed to let a number of programmers access the computer at the same time and share its resources. While initially meant for medium-sized computers, the system was soon moved to larger, more powerful mainframe computers. As personal computers grew in popularity, versions of UNIX found their way into these boxes, and a number of companies produce UNIX-based machines for the scientific and programming communities. A major contribution of the UNIX system was its portability, permitting it to move from one brand of computer to another with a minimum of code changes. At a time when different computer lines of the same vendor didn't talk to each other -- yet alone machines of multiple vendors -- that meant a great savings in both hardware and software upgrades. It also meant that the operating system could be upgraded without having all the customer's data inputted again. And new versions of UNIX were backward compatible with older versions, making it easier for companies to upgrade in an orderly manner. UNIX comes with hundreds of programs that can be divided into two classes: integral utilities that are absolutely necessary for the operation of the computer, such as the command interpreter, and tools that aren't necessary for the operation of UNIX but provide the user with additional capabilities, such as typesetting capabilities and e-mail; the tools can be added or removed from a UNIX system,

Ethics and the Internet

2000-11-30T13:00:00-05:00
No one denies that the Internet is the most useful tool for research, business, and education, yet the Internet is the subject of a topic that is as controversial as the legalities of abortion or homosexual rights: ethics and the Internet. Many racy, illegal, and controversial materials are available on the Internet such as pornography and pirated software; on the other hand, many educational tools are on-line as well. This brings a need for a case of ethics in the Internet realm. A definition of terms used regarding the Internet is necessary for the full understanding of how “unethical” data broadcasts itself around the Internet. The Internet is a worldwide computer network of home, organizational, corporate, and government computers. It is necessary to understand that the Internet is not just composed of web pages, but of files, e-mails, newsgroups, internal computer networks, personal computers, etc.; the media that most often provide the deemed controversial content are explained here. Electronic mail (E-mail) “enables computer users to communicate with and transmit digital material to other … groups of users” (“Internet”). Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a chat system in which messages are displayed real-time (i.e. messages are transmitted immediately and directly to however many receiving computer, all of which are connected to a remote server). File Transfer Protocol (FTP) allows remote computers to transfer information stored in files (such as reports or software) efficiently (“Internet”). Each medium of spreading information plays a large role in the spread of pirated software (Jordan). Software piracy, often called “warez” as a vulgar term by the pirates themselves (“Warez”), is not just a problem to people; it is a problem to the software industry of the world. A 1999 study conducted by the International Planning and Research Corporation for the Business Software Alliance and Software & Information Industry Association (forthwith referred to as the BSA and SIIA, respectively) shows that, though the percentage of pirated software has reduced in the past 5 years, the per capita expense of the software industry due to piracy has grown. Additionally, the rate of software piracy is still 36 percent (i.e. 36 out of every 100 programs worldwide are pirated; this number is based on the global population’s PC business software applications), which is rather substantial (“1999”). The fact that the rate is 26 percent may lie in the fact that many so-called software pirates hide behind myths that they believe protect

The Tiger

2000-11-30T13:00:00-05:00
Tigers are the largest members of the cat family. They live in Asia and belong to the same genus as the lion, leopard, and jaguar. Two major subspecies of the tiger are the Siberian tiger and the Bengal tiger. The tiger is thought to have originated in northern Asia during the Pleistocene Epoch. Scientific classification: Tigers belong to the family Felidae. The scientific classifications of each tiger are listed in the "Types of Tigers" section of this report. Appearance The Siberian tiger measures 4.6 to 9.2 ft long, excluding the tail, which is 27 to 37 in long. The Siberian Tiger weighs 400 to 675 lb. It has thick yellow fur with dark stripes. The Bengal tiger is about 10 ft long, including the tail, and weighs around 400 to 569 lb. It is found in southeastern Asia and in central and southern India. Its coat is flatter than the Siberian tiger's coat, it has a darker color, and the stripes are darker. The Sumatran tiger is even smaller and darker. Ears The tiger's ears are its main advantage when hunting. Tigers have white spots behind their ears to help identify one another in the jungle. Hearing is the tiger's sharpest sense. Eyes The tiger's night vision is six times greater than ours. They have a mirror like layer at the back of the eye that reflects extra light. Tigers also have very good colorful eyesight. Mouth Tigers have long, canine teeth that they use to stab and kill their prey. The molars behind them are like scissors. They slice strips of flesh from the carcass. The tigers tongue has a rough surface. This sandpaper like surface allows the tiger to drink, groom themselves, and it helps them remove the last little bit of meat from their kill. Legs The tiger's legs are very powerful. The tiger can leap up to 30 feet. Paws The tiger's paws are like a soft pad. They are not rock hard as they appear. The tiger's claws are very sharp. They can reach up to 4 - 5 inches in length and are retractable. When tigers walk, they retract their claws, in order to keep them sharp. Behavior Hunting: Tigers are very good hunters. They like to hunt large animals, such as: deer, antelope, wild oxen, pigs, and buffalo. Some tigers attack elephant calves when the calves are unprotected. Tigers also prey on small animals such as: monkeys, tortoises, and frogs. Tigers a re very

The Debate Over the Use of Natural vs. Synthetic Vitamins

2000-11-25T13:00:00-05:00
One clear representation, which will be discussed later, of the controversy surrounding the use of synthetic products versus natural products, lies in vitamins. A vitamin is a composite of the natural world that is made up of enzymes, coenzymes, antioxidants, and mineral activators. The decision on which one a person would choose usually comes down to cost, confusion, and/or common assumptions. The arguments about synthetic versus natural can easily be decided with a little bit of knowledge.

Wolf Spiders

2000-11-07T13:00:00-05:00
Wolf spiders are a group of ground-dwelling hunting spiders. There are more than 2000 types of wolf spiders. They range from 2mm to 40mm. Some wolf spiders can even walk on the water of a pond. They can walk or run while chasing after it’s prey. They use their front legs to catch their prey, and then they bite and crush the prey with their powerful jaws. They can hunt day or night. Wolf spiders can dig burrows and wait for their prey to come around, and then jump out and eat it. Some even build a trapdoor that they get under, then when their prey

Toucans

2000-11-07T13:00:00-05:00
Toucans are members of the bird family. There are about 40 different species of toucans. They range in size from 7-25 inches. They have a long rounded tail that ranges from half the bird’s body length to its full body length. They are distinguished through their beautiful bodies, which are covered with many colors. The colors in the toucan’s feathers include black, white touches, yellow, scarlet, red bands, green, and blue. They are also recognized by their huge beaks, which are also brightly colored. Some types of toucan’s beaks are half of their body length! They have very strong legs, which are scaly. Their toes are in pairs. The first and fourth toes are

Benifits of Scientific Knowledge on Health and Behavior

2000-11-01T13:00:00-04:00
Today we are relishing the ambrosial taste of the modern scientific technology and applications. Science and technologies are in the part of all human activities, from the houses that we live in, the food we eat, the cars we drive, and to the electronic gadgetry in almost every home that we use to remain informed and entertained. These all evidences show the blessings of scientific knowledge on humans. Before eighteenth century we were plunged in the depths of ignorance and unawareness of scientific knowledge. Without having an adequate scientific knowledge, our ancestors had buried their common senses deep under the mask of ignorant personalities but it was the scientific revolution in nineteenth century that unsheathed it and now we can see that the whole world is globalized due to this scientific revolution. Science has affected human life and culture in many ways and requires numerous books to discuss its impacts on us. So in this essay my goal is only to describe the impacts on health and behavior in comparison with the past and present. Before the revolutionary changes in early nineteenth century, health problems and a large number of fatal diseases gulped the whole community like a malicious dragon. The most common health problem was the numerous fatal diseases and epidemics. There was no cure for the most common diseases so these diseases always acted as a catastrophe. In those days emergence of an epidemic always proved as “Pandora’s Box” to the whole locality. At that moment average life span was thirty to forty years. Some common disease like Chicken pox, Measles, Typhoid and many different kinds of fevers had killed more than the present American population in last seven centuries through the whole planet. On the other hand if we analyze the ratio of mortality in year 1999 in comparison with the past, we would come to know that these diseases couldn’t affect more than some thousands of human lives. As the most descriptive condition of humans, health is very important factor for us. Without health we can’t survive or by having a bad health we can’t reach the average human life span.After the scientific revolution, the scientific applications have led to the treatment of numerous fatal diseases and health problems and now we are able to increase the average life span to more than seventy years. Now we can treat those fatal epidemics that ruined the every human

Taxonomy

2000-10-30T13:00:00-04:00
This following report will show you the classifications and information of the Jaguar, Tiger Shark, Earth Worm, Red Wood, and Killer Whale.CategoryKingdom-Phylum-Class-Order-Family-Genus-Species- Panthera onca
Jaguar Tiger Shark Earth Worm Red Wood Killer Whale.
Animalia Animalia Animalia Plantae Animalia.
Chordata Chordata Annelida Embryophyta Chordata
Mammalia Chondrichthyes Oligochaeta Coniferopsida Mammalia.
Carnivora Carcharhiniformes Haplotaxida Coniferales Cetacea
Felidae Carcharhinidae Megasclolecidae cupressaceae Delphinidae.
Panthera Galecoerdo Pheretima Sequoia Orcinus.
Galecoerdo covier Pheretima Sieboldi Sequoia sempervirenes Orcinus orca
THE JAGUARThe largest member of the cat family found on the American continents is the jaguar. Its average length is between 6 and 7 feet (about 2 meters). It has a large head and massive legs. Jaguars vary in color, but usually they are yellowish brown, with black spots like those of the leopard. The jaguar's spots, however, are larger and more angular. The jaguar was once found from the southern United States to Uruguay, but now it is a species in danger of extinction and survives mainly in undeveloped rain forests in Central and South America. The largest known population exists in the Amazon rain forest. Although jaguars usually stalk or ambush their prey, which consists mostly of peccaries, they are excellent swimmers and sometimes take capybaras, tapirs, crocodiles, and fish.TIGER SHARKSometimes called Leopard shark cause of his markings. This Texas species is known to be a man-eater. They are the largest species of shark to inhabit Texas waters they are the most dangerous. The markings that they derive their name from are more pronounced on the younger ones and fade out the older the shark gets. This massive 1,500-pound animal eats just about anything he wants too. This includes just about everything though from stingrays, squid, fish, smaller sharks, seagulls, and even humans!EARTHWORMThe earthworm has a cylindrically shaped, segmented body that tapers off at both ends. It has a well-developed digestive, circulatory, respiratory and nervous system. The size can range any where from a length of a few centimeters to a length of up to 11 feet. Earthworms can burrow under ground with considerable speed especially in loose soil. What is really interesting is the if you cut a worm in half it stays alive. RED WOODThe towering redwood is the tallest of all trees. During a lifetime of up to 2,000 years it may grow to nearly 400 feet (120 meters) high and more than 30 feet (9 meters) thick at the base. Its close relative, the big tree, or giant sequoia, is among the oldest of the forest trees--it may live for 3,000 years or more. It reaches heights of more than 250 feet (75 meters) and may have a trunk diameter of

Greenhouse Effect and the Hole in the Ozone Layer

2000-10-26T14:00:00-04:00
The Greenhouse Effect The earth’s climate is predicted to change because human activities are altering the chemical composition of the atmosphere through the build up of greenhouse gases – primarily carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Energy from the sun drives the earth’s weather and climate, and heats the earth’s surface. This causes the earth to radiate the energy back into space. Atmospheric greenhouse gases (water vapour, carbon dioxide, and other gases) trap some of the outgoing energy, retaining heat similar to the glass panels of a greenhouse. Without this natural “greenhouse effect,” temperatures would be much lower than they are now, and life as known today would not be possible. Instead, thanks to greenhouse gases, the earth’s average temperature is a more hospitable 24 C. However, problems may arise when the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases increases. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have increased nearly 30%. Methane concentrations have more than doubled, and nitrous oxide concentrations have risen by about 15%. Due to the concentrations increasing the heat-trapping capability of the earth’s atmosphere is enhanced. Greenhouse gas concentrations are increasing. Scientists generally believe that the combustion of fossil fuels and other human activities are the primary reason for the increased concentration of carbon dioxide. Plant respiration and the decomposition of organic matter release more than 10 times the CO released by human activities; but these releases have always been in balance with the carbon dioxide absorbed by plant photosynthesis. What has changed in the last few hundred years is the additional release of carbon dioxide by human activities. Energy burned to run cars and trucks, heat homes and businesses are responsible for about 80% of society's carbon dioxide emissions and about 20% of global nitrous oxide emissions. Increased agriculture, deforestation, landfills, industrial production, and mining also contribute a significant share of emissions. Estimating future emissions is difficult, because it depends on economic, technological, and institutional developments. The Hole in the Ozone Layer Discovery of the hole in the ozone layer showed that human activity has a major impact on Earth. The destruction of ozone in the stratosphere high above the planet's surface has been brought about as the result of the widespread use of chemicals, which under normal conditions are chemically inert and harmless. Ozone occurs at all levels in the atmosphere, but most of it is found in the stratosphere, between about 15-50 kilometres above the Earth's

The Eye and Laser Eye Surgery

2000-10-26T14:00:00-04:00
A Functioning Eye (Emmetropia) The eye is the organ of sight. It is used in almost everything we do, from playing sport to reading. A normal and well functioning eye can focus objects and images, both near and far, perceive depth and adapt to changes in light. The perception of depth is due to having two separate eyes creating two separate images, while the ability to adapt to light change is attributed to the iris and the dilator muscles. However these two aspects of the eye are not involved in laser eye surgery and will not be discussed in reference. The focusing of objects and images is very much part of laser eye surgery. In order for a clear visual image to be formed the image must come to a point on the retina. Light rays do not normally travel toward each other, usually the light rays either travel outwards or almost parallel, for this reason the light rays must be refracted. The cornea is the primary place of refraction, the “bent” light rays then travel through the aqueous humor and the pupil to the lens. Here the light is one again refracted even closer together, the light then goes through the vitreous humor and is projected onto the retina. The focus of the lens should be aimed at the fovea centralis (a tiny pit in the middle of the macula). It is in this region that vision is most sharp. For this reason, instead of simply staring at one point the eye must constantly “scan” the area to focus the whole object or image. In order to accommodate the changing distances of the object or image the lens in the eye has to adjust, becoming thinner to focus distant objects and fatter to focus near by objects. This process, of changing the lens thickness is known as accommodation. In order for this to occur the ciliary muscles contract and relax. The contraction fattens the lens and the relaxation stretches the lens. The eye functions on much the same principle as a camera. The iris, or coloured portion of the eye, acts as a shutter to regulate the amount of light admitted to the eye. The cornea (the clear window at the front of the eye) and the lens (located behind the pupil) serve to focus light rays from the object viewed onto the retina at the back of the eye.

Analyzing Search Engines

2000-10-20T14:00:00-04:00

1. Formulate five criteria for the evaluation of search engines
To effectively evaluate three different search engines from the perspective of an advanced web user, the following criteria were established: 1. Relevance and accuracy of search results 2. Search speed 3. Advanced search options 4. Other services 5. Site design and layout More information about these criteria and how they were used is available below. 2. Test three search engines against your criteria For this evaluation, the following three search engines were tested: 1. AltaVista - http://www.altavista.com/ 2. Google - http://www.google.com/ 3. DirectHit - http://www.directhit.com/
3. Explain your methodology
The criteria outlined in Part 1 were reached by considering the things that would be important to an advanced user. Of course, factors like Relevance and Speed are critical to such a user (particularly in a work environment). The search options criteria is particularly important to advanced users who are after a specific page and do not want to waste time 'wading' through results from a 'standard' search. The other criteria are important to most users and mean that the search engines are more usable and useful. The search results from the three test search engines (Part 2) were evaluate according the criteria, explained it more detail below. Criteria 1 - Relevance and Accuracy of Results This criterion was to evaluate the usefulness of a particular search engine according to the accuracy of its results. I defined the relevance, according to personal standards, after browsing the pages in the results, for three separate search terms. The Relevance Percentage is calculated by counting the number of relevant pages that appear in the first 20 search 'hits' and then multiplying by 20 (for a percentage). Criteria 2 - Search Speed This criterion was to evaluate which of the test search engines returns results quicker. However, it is important to note that the speed test is both a test of the Internet connection to the remote machine, as well as the time taken by the search engine to perform the search. Furthermore, tests of Internet speeds are very variable based on time of day, other internet traffic etc and are therefore of only limited accuracy. For this reason, no 'hard numbers' were calculated (ie timed searches). Instead, I rated each search engine based on 5 searches per engine at the same time, same day. The possible Speed Ratings are as follows: Excellent, Good, Poor Criteria 3 - Search Options This criteria was to evaluate the search engines advanced search options. This is

Psychophysics

2000-10-15T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites It is impossible to rigorously prove or substantiate the existence of a Soul, a psyche. Numerous explanations have been hitherto offered:
That what we, humans, call a soul is the way that we experience the workings of our brain (introspection experienced). This often
leads to infinite regressions.
That the soul is an epiphenomenon, the software result of a hardware complexity (much the same way as temperature, volume and
pressure are the epiphenomena of a large number of gas molecules).
That the soul does exist and that it is distinct from the body in substance (or lack of it), in form (or lack of it) and in the set of laws
that it obeys ("spiritual" rather than physical). The supporters of this camp say that correlation is not causation.
In other words, the electrochemical activity in the brain, which corresponds to mental phenomena does not mean that it IS the mental phenomena. Mental phenomena do have brain (hardware) correlates – but these correlates need not be confused with the mental phenomena themselves. Still, very few will dispute the strong connection between body and soul. The psychic activity was attributed to the heart, the liver, even to some glands. Nowadays it is attributed to the brain, apparently with better reasons. Since the body is a physical object, subject to physical laws, it follows that at least the connection between the two (body and soul) must obey the laws of physics. Another question is what is the currency used by the two in their communication. Physical forces are mediated by subatomic particles. What serves to mediate between body and soul ? Language could be the medium and the mediating currency. It has both an internal, psychic representation and an objective, external one. It serves as a bridge between our inner emotions and cognition and the outside, physical world. It originates almost non-physically (a mere thought) and has profound physical impacts and effects. It has quantum aspects combined with classical determinism. We propose that what we call the Subconscious and the Pre-Conscious (Threshold of Consciousness) are but Fields of Potentials organized in Lattices. Potentials of what? To represent realities (internal and external alike), we use language. Language seems to be the only thing able to consistently link our internal world with our physical surroundings. Thus, the potentials ought to be Lingual Energy Potentials. When one of the

Legitimizing Final Causes

2000-10-15T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites The word "telos" in ancient Greek meant: "goal, target, mission, completion, perfection". The Greeks seem to have associated the attaining of a goal with perfection. Modern scientific thought is much less sanguine about teleology, the belief that causes are preceded by their effects. The idea is less zany than it sounds. It was Aristotle who postulated the existence of four types of causes. It all started with the attempt to differentiate explanatory theories from theories concerning the nature of explanation (and the nature of explanatory theories). To explain is to provoke an understanding in a listener as to why and how something is as it is. Thales, Empedocles and Anaxagoras were mostly concerned with offering explanations to natural phenomena. The very idea that there must be an explanation is revolutionary. We are so used to it that we fail to see its extraordinary nature. Why not assume that everything is precisely as it is because this is how it should be, or because there is no better way (Leibnitz), or because someone designed it this way (religious thought)? Plato carried this revolution further by seeking not only to explain things - but also to construct a systematic, connective epistemology. His Forms and Ideas are (not so primitive) attempts to elucidate the mechanism which we employ to cope with the world of things, on the one hand, and the vessels through which the world impresses itself upon us, on the other hand. Aristotle made this distinction explicit: he said that there is a difference between the chains of causes of effects (what leads to what by way of causation) and the enquiry regarding the very nature of causation and causality. In this text, we will use the word causation in the sense of: "the action of causes that brings on their effects" and causality as: "the relation between causes and their effects". Studying this subtle distinction, Aristotle came across his "four causes". All, according to him, could be employed in explaining the world of natural phenomena. This is his point of departure from modern science. Current science does not admit the possibility of a final cause in action. But, first things first. The formal cause is why a thing is the type of thing that it is. The material cause is the matter in which the formal reason is impressed. The

Turing Machines and Universes

2000-10-15T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites In 1936 an American (Alonzo Church) and a Briton (Alan M. Turing) published independently (as is often the coincidence in science) the basics of a new branch in Mathematics (and logic): computability or recursive functions (later to be developed into Automata Theory). The authors confined themselves to dealing with computations which involved “effective” or “mechanical” methods for finding results (which could also be expressed as solutions (values) to formulae). These methods were so called because they could, in principle, be performed by simple machines (or human-computers or human-calculators, to use Turing’s unfortunate phrases). The emphasis was on finiteness : a finite number of instructions, a finite number of symbols in each instruction, a finite number of steps to the result. This is why these methods were usable by humans without the aid of an apparatus (with the exception of pencil and paper as memory aids). Moreover: no insight or ingenuity were allowed to “interfere” or to be part of the solution seeking process. What Church and Turing did was to construct a set of all the functions whose values could be obtained by applying effective or mechanical calculation methods. Turing went further down Church’s road and designed the “Turing Machine” – a machine which can calculate the values of all the functions whose values can be found using effective or mechanical methods. Thus, the program running the TM (=Turing Machine in the rest of this text) was really an effective or mechanical method. For the initiated readers: Church solved the decision-problem for propositional calculus and Turing proved that there is no solution to the decision problem relating to the predicate calculus. Put more simply, it is possible to “prove” the truth value (or the theorem status) of an expression in the propositional calculus – but not in the predicate calculus. Later it was shown that many functions (even in number theory itself) were not recursive, meaning that they could not be solved by a Turing Machine. No one succeeded to prove that a function must be recursive in order to be effectively calculable. This is (as Post noted) a “working hypothesis” supported by overwhelming evidence. We don’t know of any effectively calculable function which is not recursive, by designing new TMs from existing ones we can obtain new effectively calculable functions from existing ones and TM computability stars in every

The Partiality of Wholeness

2000-10-15T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Religious people believe in the existence of a supreme being. It has many attributes but two of the most striking are that it seems to both encompass and to pervade everything. Judaic sources are in the habit of saying that we all have a "share of the upper divine soul". Put more formally, we can say that we are both part of a Whole and permeated by it. But what are the relationships between the parts and the Whole? They could be either formal (a word in a sentence, for instance) or physical (a neurone in our brain, for instance). A formal relationship entails an impairment of the truth value of a sentence / proposition / theorem / syllogism with the removal of one or more of its parts. As a result, a part could be reconstructed to fit into an impaired Whole once the formal relationships (and the derivative truth value) are known. Things are pretty much the same in the physical realm: the removal of the part renders the Whole - NOT Whole (in the functional sense, in the structural sense, or in both senses). A part is immediately discernible: it is always smaller (size, mass, weight) than the Whole and it always possesses the potential to contribute to the functioning / role of the Whole. The part need not be active to qualify as a part - yet, it requires the potential to be active to do so. In other words : the Whole is defined by its parts - their sum, their synergy, their structure, their functions. Even where epiphenomena occur - it is inconceivable to deal with them without resorting to some discussion of the parts in their relationships with the Whole. But the parts are also defined by their context, by the Whole. It is by observing their place in the hyperstructure, interactions with other parts and general function of the Whole that we can assign the title ("parts") to them. There are no parts without a Whole. In this sense, it seems that parts and Wholes are nothing but language conventions, a way that we chose to describe the world that was compatible with our evolutionary and survival goals and with our sensory input. If this is so, then, being defined by each other, parts and Wholes are inefficient, cyclical, recursive, in short:

The Importance of Water in Living Organisms

2000-10-14T14:00:00-04:00
Water has importance inside cells and externally. This may be because it has interesting chemical and physical properties; it can be found naturally in all three of its states. However its molecules are bonded together by hydrogen bonds, this raises its melting and boiling points, i.e. its boiling point would be -120¢ªC rather than 100¢ªC. Also because it contains slightly negatively charged oxygen atoms and slightly positively charged hydrogen atoms making it polar. Water has been called a universal solvent because of it polarity. This means it can easily ionise substances, Many compounds, whether ionic, polar or covalent will dissolve in it, therefore more reactions take place while in solution with water. Often in organisms substances must be in solution and water is the solvent. Plants can only obtain mineral salts in solution and human digestion will only dissolve soluble foods, meaning large starch molecules must be broken down into soluble sugars. Also many organisms living in water spend most of their time underwater, yet they require oxygen to respire, and as water is such a good solvent the required oxygen gas is dissolved in the water. Water is the most abundant component in any organism, the lowest is 20% in seeds, while jellyfish are 99% (hence the transparency). It plays vital roles in the metabolism of all cells and in photosynthesis (providing raw materials) in plant cells. In all cells water is used for; hydrolysis, the breakdown of a substance by water, e.g. polysaccharides to monosaccharides, forming a glycosidic bond; a medium for chemical reactions, due to its properties as a solvent; the diffusion and osmosis of substances, e.g. gaseous exchange, which need to be moist as the exchange takes place in solution, therefore there is water in the lungs or in mesophyll cells (in plants) . It is also used on a much larger scale for transport. Blood is mostly water, and is used to transport food, hormones, waste products (ammonia and urea) and oxygen, similarly in plants, sap is used to transport food and other substances. These substances all easily dissolve in water and then can be transported, whether it be oxygen to tissues, or hormones to various organs. Water is also used during fertilization when sperm must reach the ovum, the sperm is transported in semen, which is mostly water. Due to water's viscosity it is a useful lubricant, as it reduces friction giving free and easy movement. For example

Parsimony – The Fourth Substance

2000-10-12T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Occasionalism is a variation upon Cartesian metaphysics. The latter is the most notorious case of dualism (mind and body, for instance). The mind is a “mental substance”. The body – a “material substance”. What permits the complex interactions which happen between these two disparate “substances”? The “unextended mind” and the “extended body” surely cannot interact without a mediating agency, God. The appearance is that of direct interaction but this is an illusion maintained by Him. He moves the body when the mind is willing and places ideas in the mind when the body comes across other bodies. Descartes postulated that the mind is an active, unextended, thought while the body is a passive, unthinking extension. The First Substance and the Second Substance combine to form the Third Substance, Man. God – the Fourth, uncreated Substance – facilitates the direct interaction among the two within the third. Foucher raised the question: how can God – a mental substance – interact with a material substance, the body. The answer offered was that God created the body (probably so that He will be able to interact with it). Leibnitz carried this further: his Monads, the units of reality, do not really react and interact. They just seem to be doing so because God created them with a pre-established harmony. The constant divine mediation was, thus, reduced to a one-time act of creation. This was considered to be both a logical result of occasionalism and its refutation by a reductio ad absurdum argument. But, was the fourth substance necessary at all? Could not an explanation to all the known facts be provided without it? The ratio between the number of known facts (the outcomes of observations) and the number of theory elements and entities employed in order to explain them – is the parsimony ratio. Every newly discovered fact either reinforces the existing worldview – or forces the introduction of a new one, through a “crisis” or a “revolution” (a “paradigm shift” in Kuhn’s abandoned phrase). The new worldview need not necessarily be more parsimonious. It could be that a single new fact precipitates the introduction of a dozen new theoretical entities, axioms and functions (curves between data points). The very delineation of the field of study serves to limit the number of facts, which could exercise such an influence upon the existing worldview

Polar Concepts

2000-10-12T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites The British philosopher Ryle attacked the sceptical point of view regarding right and wrong (=being in error). He said that if the concept of error is made use of – surely, there must be times that we are right. To him, it was impossible to conceive of the one without the other. He regarded “right” and “wrong” as polar concepts. One could not be understood without understanding the other. As it were, Ryle barked up the wrong sceptic tree. All the sceptics said was that one cannot know (or prove) that one is in the right or when one is in the right. They, largely, did not dispute the very existence of right and erroneous decisions, acts and facts. But this disputation ignored a more basic question. Can we really not understand or know the right – without as intimately understanding and knowing the wrong? To know a good object – must we contrast it with an evil one? Is the action of contrasting essential to our understanding – and, if it is, how? Imagine a mutant newborn. While in possession of a mastery of all lingual faculties – the infant will have no experience whatsoever and will have received no ethical or moral guidelines from his adult environment. If such a newborn were to be offered food, a smile, a caressing hand, attention – would he not have identified them as “good”, even if these constituted his whole universe of experience? Moreover, if he were to witness war, death, violence and abuse – would he have not recoiled and judged them to be “bad”? Many would hurl at me the biblical adage about the intrinsic evilness of humans. But this is beside the point. Whether this infant’s world of values and value judgement will conform to society’s is an irrelevant question to us. We ask: would such an infant consistently think of certain acts and objects as “good” (desired, beneficial) – even if he were never to come across another set of acts and objects which he could contrast with the first and call “bad” or “evil”. I think so. Imagine that the infant is confined to the basic functions : eating and playing. Is there any possibility that he would judge them to be “bad”? Never. Not even if he were never to do anything else but eat

The Possibility of Necessity

2000-10-12T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Some things are logically possible (LP). Others are physically possible (PP) and yet others are Physically Actual (PA). The things that are logically necessary (LN) are excluded from this discussion because they constitute a meta-level: they result from the true theorems in the logical systems within which LP, PP and PA reside. In other words: the LN are about relationships between the three other categories. The interactions between the three categories (LP, PP, PA) yield the LN through the application of the rules (and theorems) of the logical system within which all four reside. We are, therefore, faced with six questions. The answers to three of them we know – the answers to the other three are a great mystery. The questions are:
Is every LP also PP?
Is every LP also PA?
Is every PP also PA?
Is every PP also LP?
Is every PA also LP?
Is every PA also PP? Every PP must be also LP. The physical world is ruled by the laws of nature which are organized in logical systems. The rules of nature are all LP and whatever obeys them must also be LP. Whatever is PA must be PP (otherwise it will not have actualized). Since every PP is also LP – every PA must also be LP. And, of course, nothing impossible can actually exist – so, every PA must also be PP. That something exists implies that it must also be possible. But what is the relationship between necessity and existence? If something is necessary – does it mean that it must exist? It would seem so. And if something exists – does it mean that it was necessary? Not necessarily. It really depends on how one chooses to define necessity. A thought system can be constructed in which if something exists, it implies its necessity. An example: evolutionary adaptations. If an organism acquired some organ or trait – it exists because it was deemed necessary by evolution. And thought systems can be constructed in which if something is of necessity – it does not necessarily mean that it will exist. Consider human society. There are six modes of possibility: Logical (something is possible if its negation constitutes a contradiction, a logical impossibility). Metaphysical (something is possible if it is consistent with metaphysical necessities) Nomological (something is possible if it is

Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) - Criteria

2000-10-12T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Please read CAREFULLY! The text in italics is NOT based on the Diagnostics and Statistics Manual, Fourth Edition (1994). the text in italics IS based on "Malignant Self Love - Narcissism Revisited" (1999) An all-pervasive

The Pleasure of Meaning

2000-10-12T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Abstract People often confuse satisfaction or pleasure with meaning. It is one thing to ask "How" (what Science does), another to seek an answer to "Why" (a teleological quest in most cases) and still different to contemplate the "What for". For instance: people often do something because it gives them pleasure or satisfaction – however this does not endow the act with meaning. Meaningless things can be – and many times, are – pleasant and satisfying. A prime example is human games. Games are structured, they are governed by rules and represent the results of negotiations, analysis, synthesis and forecasting. They please and satisfy. Yet, a few will dispute their meaninglessness. Games are useful. They teach and prepare us for real life situations. Sometimes, they bring in their wake fame, status, money, the ability to influence the real world. And even this does not make them meaningful. It is easy to answer HOW people play games. Specify the rules of the game or observe it long enough, until the rules become apparent – and you have the answer. It is easy to answer WHAT FOR do people play games. Pleasure, satisfaction, money, fame, learning, simulating real life experiences in anticipation and preparation for them. But al this does not draw us an inch closer to the answer to the question: WHAT IS THE MEANING OF GAMES? For meaning to exist, we must have the following (cumulating) elements:
A relationship between at least two distinctive (at least partially mutually exclusive) entities (space-time is the result of such a relationship)
This relationship must manifest itself as the ability to map important parts of the entities unto each other ("Important" – without which the entity is not the same, an identity element)
That one of the entities should be larger than the other in some important sense. One of the entities must be physically bigger, older, more encompassing, mappable to more entities, etc.
That there be an interpreter to discern and understand the relationship between the entities (therefore, an "intelligent" interpreter)
That such observations would lead the interpreter (potentially) to explain and to predict an important facet of the identity and of the behaviour of one of the entities (usually, in terms of the other, within the context and while using the laws of mathematical logic)
That the understanding of a "Meaning" will

Concentration and Reaction Rate

2000-10-11T14:00:00-04:00
How concentration affects reaction rate. The aim of this investigation is to see how the concentration of a reactant in ratio to the reactor affects the rate of a reaction. When hydrochloric acid and Thiosulphate react together sulphur is liberated this means that as the reaction goes on the solution will become yellow and will change from being transparent to translucent to opaque. The sulphur is formed as a solid but not in the usual precipitation way. Na2 + S2 + 2HCL 2NaCl+SO2 + S2 +H2O To time the reaction I will draw a black cross on a piece of plain paper on which the beaker of reactants will be placed (HCL and Thiosulphate). When the chemicals come into contact with each other I will start timing with a stopwatch and will stop timing when the cross is longer visible through the beaker from above. A reaction: A chemical reaction between to chemicals can only happen if their molecules can collide into each other. Out of many collisions there will be a few successful collisions, which means that the two molecules will exchange electrons and that means that they have reacted. These molecules have to hit each other in the right direction and at the right speed; in short the rules for a “successful collision” are specific and complex. But if the number of collisions per second increase so will the number of successful collisions increase. This means that the rate of the reaction has increased. For a reaction to occur you also need the required activation energy which means that if there isn’t enough the reaction won’t take place although catalysts can lower this. Input Variables: Catalyst Concentration of acid or thiosulphate Temperature Light Temperature: If you increase the amount of energy in a group of molecules the reaction rate will increase. When you give energy to molecules they tend to move about a bit more. And this means that if they are moving rapidly from place to place they are going to have a lot more collisions and because they are having lots of collisions the chances are that they will have a successful collision a lot more quickly than if they weren’t. This basically means that reaction rate is increased as temperature increases. I believe that temperature is directly proportional

The Narcissist’s Mother

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites A. The Loved Enemies - an Introduction An oft-overlooked fact is that the child is not sure that it exists. It avidly absorbs cues from its human environment. “Am I present?”, “Am I separate?”, “Can I be noticed?” – these are the questions that compete in his mind with his need to merge, to become a part of his caregivers. Granted, the infant (ages 0 to 2) does not engage in a verbal formulation of these “thoughts” (which are part cognitive, part instinctual). This nagging uncertainty is more akin to a discomfort, like being thirsty or wet. The infant is torn between its need to differentiate and distinguish its SELF - and its no less urgent need to assimilate and integrate by being assimilated and integrated. H. Kohut : “Just as we know, from the point of view of the physiologist, that a child needs to be given certain foods, that he needs to be protected against extreme temperatures, and that the atmosphere he breathes has to contain sufficient oxygen, if his body is to become strong and resilient, so do we also know, from the point of view of the depth-psychologist, that he requires an empathic environment, specifically, an environment that responds (a) to his need to have his presence confirmed by the glow of parental pleasure and (b) to his need to merge into the reassuring calmness of the powerful adult, if he is to acquire a firm and resilient self.” (From: “The Dynamics and Treatment of Alcoholism”) The child’s nascent Self must first overcome its feelings of diffusiveness, of being an extension of its caregivers (also parents, in this text), or a part of them. Kohut says that the parents perform the functions of the Self for their child. More likely, a battle is joined from the first breath of the child: a battle to gain autonomy, to usurp the power of the parents, to become a distinct unit. The child refuses to let the parents be its Self for him. It rebels and seeks to depose them and take over their functions. The better the parents serve as selfobjects (in lieu of the child’s Self) – the stronger the child’s Self becomes, the more vigorously it fights for its independence. The parents, in this sense, are like a benign, benevolent and enlightened colonial power, which performs the

The Habit of Identity

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites In a famous experiment, students were asked to take a lemon home and to get used to it. Three days later, they were able to single out “their” lemon from a pile of rather similar ones. They seemed to have bonded. Is this the true meaning of love, bonding, coupling? Do we simply get used to other human beings, pets, or objects? Habit forming in humans is reflexive. We change ourselves and our environment in order to attain maximum comfort and well being. It is the effort that goes into these adaptive processes that forms a habit. The habit is intended to prevent us from constant experimenting and risk taking. The greater our well being, the better we function and the longer we survive. Actually, when we get used to something or to someone – we get used to ourselves. In the object of the habit we see a part of our history, all the time and effort that we put into it. It is an encapsulated version of our acts, intentions, emotions and reactions. It is a mirror reflecting back at us that part in us, which formed the habit. Hence, the feeling of comfort: we really feel comfortable with our own selves through the agency of the object of our habit. Because of this, we tend to confuse habits with identity. If asked WHO they are, most people will resort to describing their habits. They will relate to their work, their loved ones, their pets, their hobbies, or their material possessions. Yet, all of these cannot constitute part of an identity because their removal does not change the identity that we are seeking to establish when we enquire WHO someone is. They are habits and they make the respondent comfortable and relaxed. But they are not part of his identity in the truest, deepest sense. Still, it is this simple mechanism of deception that binds people together. A mother feels that her off spring are part of her identity because she is so used to them that her well being depends on their existence and availability. Thus, any threat to her children is interpreted to mean a threat on her Self. Her reaction is, therefore, strong and enduring and can be recurrently elicited. The truth, of course, is that her children ARE a part of her identity in

The Traversal of the Infinite

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Finiteness has to do with the existence of boundaries. Intuitively, we feel that where there is a separation, a border, a threshold – there is bound to be at least one thing finite out of a minimum of two. This, of course, is not true. Two infinite things can share a boundary. Infinity does not imply symmetry, let alone isotropy. An entity can be infinite to its “left” – and bounded on its right. Moreover, finiteness can exist where no boundaries can. Take a sphere: it is finite, yet we can continue to draw a line on its surface infinitely. The “boundary”, in this case, is conceptual and arbitrary: if a line drawn on the surface of a sphere were to reach its starting point – then it is finite. Its starting point is the boundary, arbitrarily determined to be so by us. This arbitrariness is bound to appear whenever the finiteness of something is determined by us, rather than “objectively, by nature”. A finite series of numbers is a fine example. WE limit the series, we make it finite by imposing boundaries on it and by instituting “rules of membership”: “A series of all the real numbers up to and including 1000” . Such a series has no continuation (after the number 1000). But, then, the very concept of continuation is arbitrary. Any point can qualify as an end (or as a beginning). Are the statements: “There is an end”, “There is no continuation” and “There is a beginning” – equivalent? Is there a beginning where there is an end ? And is there no continuation wherever there is an end? It all depends on the laws that we set. Change the law and an end-point becomes a starting point. Change it once more and a continuation is available. Legal age limits display such flexible properties. Finiteness is also implied in a series of relationships in the physical world : containment, reduction, stoppage. But, these, of course, are, again, wrong intuitions. They are at least as wrong as the intuitive connection between boundaries and finiteness. If something is halted (spatially or temporally) – it is not necessarily finite. An obstacle is the physical equivalent of a conceptual boundary. An infinite expansion can be checked and yet remain infinite (by expanding in other directions, for instance). If it is reduced

Internet: A Medium or a Message?

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites The State of the Net: An Interim Report about the Future of the Internet Who are the participants who constitute the Internet?
Users - connected to the net and interacting with it
The communications lines and the communications equipment
The intermediaries (e.g. the suppliers of on-line information or access providers).
Hardware manufacturers
Software authors and manufacturers (browsers, site development tools, specific applications, smart agents, search engines and others).
The "Hitchhikers" (search engines, smart agents, Artificial Intelligence - AI - tools and more)
Content producers and providers
Suppliers of financial wherewithal (currently - corporate and institutional cash to be replaced, in the future, by advertising money)
The fate of each of these components - separately and in solidarity - will determine the fate of the Internet.
The Internet has hitherto been considered the territory of computer wizards. Thus, any attempt at predicting its future applied the Olympic formula : "Faster, Higher, Stronger" to its hardware and software determinants. Media experts, sociologists, psychologists, advertising and marketing executives were left out of the collective effort to determine the future face of the Internet. The Internet cannot be currently defined as a medium. It does not function as one - rather it is a very disordered library, mostly incorporating the writings of non-distinguished megalomaniacs. It is the ultimate Narcissistic experience. Yet, ever since the invention of television there hasn't been anything as begging to become a medium as the Internet is. Three analogies spring to mind when contemplating the Internet in its current state:
A chaotic library
A neural network or the equivalent of a telephony network in the making
A new continent These metaphors prove to be very useful (even business-wise). They permit us to define the commercial opportunities embedded in the Internet. Yet, they fail to assist us in predicting its future which lies in its transformation into a medium. How does an invention become a medium? What happens to it when it does become one? What is the thin line separating the basic function of the invention from its flowering in the form of a new medium? In other words: when can we tell that some technological advance gave birth to a new medium? This work also deals with the image of the Internet once transformed into a medium. The Internet has the most unusual attributes in the history of the media.

The Solow Paradox

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites The PRODUCTIVE HARDWARE The world is debating the Solow Paradox. Named after the Nobel laureate in economics, it was stated by him thus: "You can see the computer age everywhere these days, except in the productivity statistics". The venerable economic magazine, "The Economist" in its issue dated July 24th, quotes the no less venerable Professor Robert Gordon ("one of America's leading authorities on productivity") - p.20: "...the productivity performance of the manufacturing sector of the United States economy since 1995 has been abysmal rather than admirable. Not only has productivity growth in non-durable manufacturing decelerated in 1995-9 compared to 1972-95, but productivity growth in durable manufacturing stripped of computers has decelerated even more." What should be held true - the hype or the dismal statistics? The answer to this question is of crucial importance to economies in transition. If investment in IT (information technology) actually RETARDS growth - then it should be avoided, at least until a functioning marketplace is there to counter its growth suppressing effects. The notion that IT retards growth is counter-intuitive. It would seem that, at the least, computers allow us to do more of the same things faster. Typing, order processing, inventory management, production processes, number crunching are all managed more efficiently by computers. Added efficiency should translate into enhanced productivity. Put simply, the same number of people can do more, faster, more cheaply with computers than they can without them. Yet reality begs to differ. Two elements are often neglected in considering the beneficial effects of IT. The first is that the concept of information technology comprises two very distinct economic activities: an all-purpose machine (the PC) and its enabling applications and a medium (the internet). Capital assets as distinct from media assets are governed by different economic principles, should be managed differently and be the subject of different philosophical points of view. Massive, double digit increases in productivity are feasible in the manufacturing of computer hardware. The inevitable outcome is an exponential explosion in computing and networking power. The dual rules which govern IT - Moore's (a doubling of chip capacity and computing prowess every 18 months) and Metcalf's (the exponential increase in a network's processing ability as more computers connect to it) - also dictate a breathtaking pace of increased productivity in the hardware cum software aspect of IT. This has been

The Inverted Narcissist

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
The Clinical Picture and Developmental Roots - Opening Remarks
Terminology
Co-dependents People who depend on other people for their emotional gratification and the performance of ego or daily functions. They are needy, demanding, submissive. They fear abandonment, cling and display immature behaviors in their effort to maintain the "relationship" with their companion or mate upon whom they depend. No matter what abuse is inflicted upon them - they remain in the relationship. See also the definition of the "Dependent Personality Disorder" in the DSM IV. Inverted Narcissist Previously called "covert narcissist", this is a co-dependent who depends exclusively on narcissists. If you live with a narcissist, have a relationship with them, are married to them, work with them, etc. - it does NOT mean that you are an inverted narcissist. To "qualify" as an inverted narcissist - you must WANT to be in a relationship with a narcissist, regardless of any abuse inflicted on you by him / her. You must ACTIVELY seek relationships with narcissists - and ONLY with narcissists - no matter what your (bitter and traumatic) past experience has been. You must feel EMPTY and UNHAPPY in relationships with ANY OTHER kind of person. Only THEN - AND if you satisfy the other diagnostic criteria of a Dependent Personality Disorder - can you be safely diagnosed as an "Inverted Narcissist".
Introduction
The DSM IV defines the NPD using a few criteria. It is sufficient to possess 5 of them to "qualify". Thus, theoretically, it is possible to be NPD WITHOUT grandiosity. Many researchers (to mention a few: Alexander Lowen, Jeffrey Satinover, Theodore Millon) suggested a "taxonomy" of pathological narcissism. They divided narcissists to sub-groups (very much as I did with my somatic versus cerebral narcissist dichotomy - SV). Lowen, for instance, talks about the "phallic" narcissist versus others. Satinover makes a very important distinction between narcissists who were raised by abusive parents - and those who were raised by doting mothers or domineering mothers. See an expansion of the Satinover classification in: http://narcissism.cjb.net/faq64.html In "Psychodynamic Psychiatry in Clinical Practice/ The DSM-IV Edition's comments on Cluster B Personality Disorders - Narcissistic" we find this: "...what definitive criteria can be used to differentiate healthy from pathological narcissism? The time honored criteria of psychological health - to love and to work - are only partly useful in answering this question." "An individual's work history may provide little help in making

Fact and Truth – Regarding the Difference between Them

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Thought experiments (Gedankenexperimenten) are facts in the sense they have a “real life” correlate in the form of electrochemical activity in the brain. But it is quite obvious that they do not relate to facts. They are not a true statement. A question can be posed: do they lack truth because they do not relate to a fact or are the two facts disjointed? How are Truth and Fact interrelated? One answer is that Truth value is a shorthand to describe the possibility that an event will occur. If true – it must occur and if false – it cannot occur. This is a binary world of extreme conditions of being. Should all possible events occur? Of course not. If they do not occur would they still be true? Must a statement demonstrate a real life correlate to be true? Instinctively, yes. We cannot conceive of a thought without brainwaves. A statement which remains a potential seems to exist in the nether land between truth and falsity. It could become true by materializing, by occurring, by matching up with real life. If we had the ability to show that it will never do so (ad infinitum), we would have felt comfortable to classify it as false. This is the outgrowth of millennia of concrete, Aristotelian logic. Logical statements talk about the world and, therefore, if a statement cannot be shown to relate directly to the world, it is not true. This approach, however, is constructed upon some underlying assumptions: First, that the world is finite and not only finite – but also close to its end. To say that if something did not happen than it is not true is to say that it will never happen (meaning that time and space – the world, in one word – are finite and are about to end momentarily). A second assumption is that truth and falsity are mutually exclusive. Quantum logic has disproved this one. There are real world situations that are in both realms, the true and the “not-true”. A particle can “be” in two places at the same time. This fuzzy logic is incompatible with our daily experiences but if there is anything that we have learnt from physics in the last seven decades is that the world is incompatible with our daily experiences. Thirdly, that the psychic realm

The Decoherence of Measurement

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Arguably the most onerous philosophical question attached to Quantum Mechanics (QM) is that of Measurement. The accepted (a.k.a. Copenhagen) Interpretation of QM says that our very act of conscious, intelligent, observable measurement – determines the outcome of the measurement in the quantum (microcosmic) realm. The wave function (which describes the co-existing, superpositioned, states of the system) collapses following a measurement. It seems that just by knowing the results of a measurement – we determine its outcome, determine the state of the system and, by implication, the state of the Universe as a whole. This notion is so counter-intuitive that it fostered a raging debate which has been on going for more than 7 decades now. But, could we have turned the question (and, inevitably, the answer) on its head? Is it the measurement that brings about the collapse – or, maybe, we are capable of measuring only collapsed results? Maybe our very ability to measure, to design measurement methods and instrumentation, to conceptualize measurement and so on – are thus limited as to yield only the collapse solutions of the wave function? Superpositions are notoriously unstable. Even in the quantum realm they should last but an infinitely split moment of time. Our measurement apparatus is not as refined as to capture a superposition long enough to justify the title of “measurement” or “observation”. By contrast, collapses are sufficiently stable to last, to be observed and measured. This is why we measure collapses. But in which sense (excluding longevity which, anyhow, is a dubious matter in the quantum world) are collapse events measurable, what makes them so? Collapse events are not the most highly probable – some of them are associated with low probabilities and still they occur and are measured. Ex definitio, the more probable states will tend to be measured more (the wave function will collapse more often into high probability states). But this does not exclude the less probable states of the quantum system from materializing upon measurement. The other possibility is that the collapse events are carefully “selected” for some purpose, within a certain pattern and in a certain sequence. What could that purpose be? Probably, the extension and enhancement of order in the Universe. That this is so can be easily substantiated: it is so. Order increases all the time. This is doubly true if we

On Empathy

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites The Encyclopaedia Britannica (1999 edition) defines empathy as: "The ability to imagine oneself in anther's place and understand the other's feelings, desires, ideas, and actions. It is a term coined in the early 20th century, equivalent to the German Einfühlung and modelled on "sympathy." The term is used with special (but not exclusive) reference to aesthetic experience. The most obvious example, perhaps, is that of the actor or singer who genuinely feels the part he is performing. With other works of art, a spectator may, by a kind of introjection, feel himself involved in what he observes or contemplates. The use of empathy is an important part of the counselling technique developed by the American psychologist Carl Rogers." Empathy is predicated upon and must, therefore, incorporate the following elements: (a) Imagination which is dependent on the ability to imagine (b) The existence of an accessible Self (self-awareness or self-consciousness) (c) The existence of an available other (other-awareness, recognizing the outside world) (d) The existence of accessible feelings, desires, ideas and representations of actions or their outcomes both in the empathizing Self ("Empathor") and in the Other, the object of empathy ("Empathee") (e) The availability of an aesthetic frame of reference (f) The availability of a moral frame of reference While (a) is presumed to be universally available to all agents (though in varying degrees) - the existence of the other components of empathy should not be taken for granted. Conditions (b) and (c), for instance, are not satisfied by people who suffer from personality disorders, such as the Narcissistic Personality Disorder. Condition (d) is not met in autistic people (e.g., those who suffer from the Asperger syndrome). Conditions (e) is so totally dependent on the specifics of the culture, period and society in which it exists - that it is rather meaningless and ambiguous as a yardstick. Condition (f) suffer from both afflictions: it is both culture-dependent AND is not satisfied in many people (such as those who suffer from the Antisocial Personality Disorder and who are devoid of any conscience or moral sense). Thus, the very existence of empathy should be questioned. It is often confused with inter-subjectivity. The latter is defined thus by "The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, 1995": "This term refers to the status of being somehow accessible to at least two (usually all, in principle) minds or 'subjectivities'.

On Dis-ease

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites We are all terminally ill. It is a matter of time before we all die. Aging and death remain almost as mysterious as ever. We feel awed and uncomfortable when we contemplate these twin afflictions. Indeed, the very word denoting illness contains its own best definition: dis-ease. A mental component of lack of well being must exist SUBJECTIVELY. The person must FEEL bad, must experience discomfiture for his condition to qualify as a disease. To this extent, we are justified in classifying all dieases "spiritual" or "mental". Is there any other way of distinguishing health from sickness - a way that does NOT depend on the report tha the patient provides regarding his subjective experience? Some diseases are manifest and others are latent or immanent. Genetic diseases can exist - unmanifested - for generations. This raises the philosophical problem or whether a potential disease IS a disease? Are AIDS and Hemophilia carriers - sick? Should they be treated, ethically speaking? They experience no dis-ease, they report no symptoms, no signs are evident. On what moral grounds can we commit them to treatment? On the grounds of the "greater benefit" is the common response. Carriers threaten others and must be isolated or otherwise neutered. The threat inherent in them must be eradicated. This is a dangerous moral precedent. All kinds of people threaten our well-being: unsettling ideologists, the mentally handicapped, many politicians. Why should we single out our physical well-being as worthy of a privileged moral status? Why is our mental well being, for instance, of less import? Moreover, the distinction between the psychic and the physical is hotly disputed, philosophically. The psychophysical problem is as intractable today as it ever was (if not more so). It is beyond doubt that the physical affects the mental and the other way around. This is what disciplines like psychiatry are all about. The ability to control "autonomous" bodily functions (such as heartbeat) and mental reactions to pathogenes of the brain are proof of the artificialness of this distinction. It is a result of the reductionist view of nature as divisible and summable. The sum of the parts, alas, is not always the whole and there is no such thing as an infinite set of the rules of nature, only an asymptotic approximation of it. The distinction between the patient and the outside world

The Definition of Definitions

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites The sentence “all cats are black” is evidently untrue even if only one cat in the whole universe were to be white. Thus, the property “being black” cannot form a part of the definition of a cat. The lesson to be learnt is that definitions must be universal. They must apply to all the members of a defined set (the set of “all cats” in our example). Let us try to define a chair. In doing so we are trying to capture the essence of being a chair, its “chairness”. It is chairness that is defined – not this or that specific chair. We want to be able to identify chairness whenever and wherever we come across it. But chairness cannot be captured without somehow tackling and including the uses of a chair – what is it made for, what does it do or help to do. In other words, a definition must include an operative part, a function. In many cases the function of the Definiendum (the term defined) constitutes its meaning. The function of a vinyl record is its meaning. It has no meaning outside its function. The Definiens (the expression supplying the definition) of a vinyl record both encompasses and consists of its function or use. Yet, can a vinyl record be defined in vacuum, without incorporating the record player in the definiens? After all, a vinyl record is an object containing audio information decoded by a record player. Without the “record player” bit, the definiens becomes ambiguous. It can fit an audio cassette, or a compact disc. So, the context is essential. A good definition includes a context, which serves to alleviate ambiguity. Ostensibly, the more details provided in the definition – the less ambiguous it becomes. But this is not true. Actually, the more details provided the more prone is the definition to be ambiguous. A definition must strive to be both minimal and aesthetic. In this sense it is much like a scientific theory. It talks about the match or the correlation between language and reality. Reality is parsimonious and to reflect it, definitions must be as parsimonious as it is. Let us summarize the characteristics of a good definition and then apply them and try to define a few very mundane terms. First, a definition must reveal the meaning of the term or

Narcissists, Inverted Narcissists and Schizoids

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Question: Are Narcissists also schizoids? Answer: This is not a question about dual diagnosis or co-morbidity. The implications of a positive answer run much deeper than a mere listing of traits and behaviours. This is the definition of the Schizoid Personality Disorder (SPD) in the DSM IV (1994): A. A pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of expression of emotions in interpersonal settings, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by four (or more) of the following: (1) neither desires nor enjoys close relationships, including being part of a family (2) almost always chooses solitary activities (3) has little, if any, interest in having sexual experiences with another person (4) takes pleasure in few, if any, activities (5) lacks close friends or confidants other than first degree relatives (6) appears indifferent to the praise or criticism of others (7) shows emotional coldness, detachment, or flattened affectivity B. Does not occur exclusively during the course of schizophrenia, a mood disorder with psychotic features, another psychotic disorder, or a pervasive developmental disorder and is not due to the direct physiological effects of a general medical condition. In short, as the "Review of General Psychiatry (4th Edition), 1995" puts it: "The person with schizoid personality disorder sustains a fragile emotional equilibrium by avoiding intimate personal contact and thereby minimizing conflict that is poorly tolerated." Intuitively, a connection between SPD and NPD must exist. After all, NPDs are people who withdraw from others into themselves. They love themselves in lieu of loving others. Lacking empathy, they regard others as mere instruments, objectified "sources" of narcissistic supply. With the exception of criterion 6 above - the classic narcissist would tend to fit all other criteria. The inverted narcissist is a narcissist (IN) who "projects" his narcissism unto another narcissist. Through the mechanism of projective identification, the IN experiences his own narcissism vicariously, through the agency of a classic narcissist. But the IN is no less a narcissist than the classical one. It is no less socially reticent. A distinction must be made between social interactions and social relationships. The schizoid, the narcissist and the inverted narcissist - all interact socially. But they fail to form human and social relationships. The schizoid is disinterested and the narcissist is both disinterested and incapable due to his lack of

Bipolar Disorder: Cause of Great Madness or Great Genius?

2000-10-07T14:00:00-04:00
Is bipolar disorder the cause of great madness or great genius? The symptoms of this mental illness may also be considered as the driving forces behind some of the most gifted and talented people to grace our society. Although individuals with this illness may have some obstacles to overcome, it can be accomplished. With all of the treatment programs that are widely available, people have many options and methods to turn to for help. Bipolar disorder, also referred to as manic depression, is a mood disorder. A person with bipolar disorder will have extreme mood shifts between mania, a state of highly elevated euphoric feelings, and depression, a state of despondency and despair. These shifts can take weeks, days, or even minutes to happen. The period between shifts will vary for each individual, depending on the severity of the disorder (Williams & Wilkins, 1999, pp. 5-35). Approximately two percent of adults have this mental illness, and about fifteen percent of those adults will attempt suicide. Bipolar disorder affects both men and women and the affected rates are similar between different cultures and countries. Most people with bipolar disorder experience their first mood episode in their twenties, although it is not uncommon to experience the first episode during childhood or in late life (Bi-polar Disorder: Innovative Research in Health, 2000). Bipolar disorder is not a curable disorder, although it is treatable. Bipolar is "among the most treatable of the psychiatric illnesses" (Manic-Depressive/Bipolar Disorder, 2000). It is important for people who believe that they may need help to seek it as soon as possible because the earlier that bipolar disorder can be diagnosed the earlier treatments can start. Even after experiencing an episode, even after sensing that something may be wrong, individuals who seek help may not initially receive the correct diagnosis from a medical professional. Because of the similarity of symptoms, bipolar disorder may initially be misdiagnosed as panic disorder, schizophrenia, or attention deficit disorder (Bi-polar Disorder: Innovative Research in Health, 2000). Bipolar may also be difficult to diagnose because the person seeking help may not be telling the doctor everything the doctor needs to know to correctly identify the problem. Medical professionals may only diagnose a person as having depression because they have no knowledge of the excessive enthusiasm that the patient feels. It is important for individuals seeking medical help to be accurate and thorough in describing their feelings or symptoms

The Quantum of Continuity

2000-10-05T14:00:00-04:00
http://philosophos.tripod.com The problem of continuum versus discreteness seems to be related to the issue of infinity and finiteness. The number of points in a line served as the logical floodgate which led to the development of Set Theory by Cantor at the end of the 19th century. It took almost another century to demonstrate the problematic nature of some of Cantor's thinking (Cohen completed Godel's work in 1963). But continuity can be finite and the connection is, most times, misleading rather than illuminating. Intuition tells us that the world is continuous and contiguous. This seems to be a state of things which is devoid of characteristics other than its very existence. And yet, whenever we direct the microscope of scientific discipline at the world, we encounter quantized, segregated, distinct and discrete pictures. This atomization seems to be the natural state of things - why did evolution resort to the false perception of continuum? And how can a machine which is bound to be discrete by virtue of its "naturalness" - the brain - perceive a continuum? The continuum is an external, mental category which is imposed by us on our observations and on the resulting data. It serves as an idealized approximation of reality, a model which is asymptotic to the Universe "as it is". It gives rise to the concepts of quality, emergence, function, derivation, influence (force), interaction, fields, (quantum) measurement, processes and a host of other holistic ways of relating to our environment. The other pole, the quantized model of the world conveniently gives rise to the complementary set of concepts : quantity, causality, observation, (classic) measurement, language, events, quants, units and so on. The private, macroscopic, low velocity instances of our physical descriptions of the universe (theories) tend to be continuous. Newtonian time is equated to a river. Space is a yarn. Einstein was the last classicist (relativity just means that no classical observer has any preference over another in formulating the laws of physics and in performing measurements). His space-time is a four dimensional continuum. What commenced as a matter of mathematical convenience was transformed into a hallowed doctrine : homogeneity, isotropy, symmetry became enshrined as the cornerstones of an almost religious outlook ("God does not play dice"). These were assumed to be "objective", "observer independent" qualities of the Universe. There was supposed to be no preferred direction, no clustering of mass or of energy, no

Bestowed Existence

2000-10-05T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Knives and forks are objects external to us. They have an objective - or at least an intersubjective - existence. Presumably, they will be there even if no one watches or uses them ever again. We can safely call them "Objective Entities". Our emotions and thoughts can be communicated - but they are NOT the communication itself or its contents. They are "Subjective Entities", internal, dependent upon the existence of one observer - us. But what about numbers? The number one, for instance, has no objective, observer-independent status. I am not referring to the number one as adjective, as in "one apple". I am referring to it as a stand-alone entity. As an entity it seems to stand alone in some way (it's out there) - and be subjective in other ways (dependent upon observers). Numbers belong to a third category: "Bestowed Entities". These are entities whose existence is bestowed upon them by social agreement between conscious agents. But this definition is so wide and all encompassing that it might be considered useless. Religion and money are two examples of entities which owe their existence to a social agreement between conscious entities - yet they don't strike us as universal and out there (objective) as numbers do. Indeed, this distinction is pertinent and our definition should be refined accordingly. We must distinguish "Social Entities" (like money or religion) from "Bestowed Entities". The latter - in stark contrast to the former - are not universal, they re dependent on the society, culture and period that gave them birth. Not so with numbers. Numbers are Platonic ideas which come into existence through an act of conscious agreement between ALL the agents capable of reaching such an agreement. While conscious agents can argue about the value of money (read, about its existence) and about the existence of God - no rational, conscious agent can have an argument regarding the number one. Apparently, the bestowed entity category seems to free itself from the eternal dichotomy of internal versus external. It is both and comfortably so. But this is only an illusion. The dichotomy does persist. The bestowed entity is internal to the group of consenting conscious-rational agents - but it is external to any single agent (individual). In other words, a group of rational conscious agents is certain to bestow existence on the number

The Chinese Room Revisited

2000-10-05T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Whole forests have been wasted in the effort to refute the Chinese Room Thought Experiment proposed by Searle in 1980 and refined (really derived from axioms) in 1990. The experiment envisages a room in which an English speaker sits, equipped with a book of instructions in English. Through one window messages in Chinese are passed on to him (in the original experiment, two types of messages). He is supposed to follow the instructions and correlate the messages received with other pieces of paper, already in the room, also in Chinese. This collage he passes on to the outside through yet another window. The comparison with a computer is evident. There is input, a processing unit and output. What Searle tried to demonstrate is that there is no need to assume that the central processing unit (the English speaker) understands (or, for that matter, performs any other cognitive or mental function) the input or the output (both in Chinese). Searle generalized and stated that this shows that computers will never be capable of thinking, being conscious, or having other mental states. In his picturesque language “syntax is not a sufficient base for semantics”. Consciousness is not reducible to computations. It takes a certain “stuff” (the brain) to get these results. Objections to the mode of presentation selected by Searle and to the conclusions that he derived were almost immediately raised. Searle fought back effectively. But throughout these debates a few points seemed to have escaped most of those involved. First, the English speaker inside the room himself is a conscious entity, replete and complete with mental states, cognition, awareness and emotional powers. Searle went to the extent of introducing himself to the Chinese Room (in his disputation). Whereas Searle would be hard pressed to prove (to himself) that the English speaker in the room is possessed of mental states – this is not the case if he himself were in the room. The Cartesian maxim holds: "Cogito, ergo sum". But this argument – though valid – is not strong. The English speaker (and Searle, for that matter) can easily be replaced in the thought experiment by a Turing machine. His functions are recursive and mechanical. But there is a much more serious objection. Whomever composed the book of instructions must have been conscious, possessed of mental states and of cognitive processes.

Althusser - a Critique

2000-10-05T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites With the exception of Nietzsche, no other madman has contributed so much to human sanity as has Louis Althusser. He is mentioned twice in the Encyclopaedia Britannica as someone's teacher. There could be no greater lapse: for two important decades (the 60s and the 70s), Althusser was at the eye of all the important cultural storms. He fathered quite a few of them. This newly-found obscurity forces me to summarize his work before suggesting a few (minor) modifications to it. (1) Society consists of practices: economic, political and ideological. Althusser defines a practice as: "Any process of transformation of a determinate product, affected by a determinate human labour, using determinate means (of production)" The economic practice (the historically specific mode of production) transforms raw materials to finished products using human labour and other means of production, all organized within defined webs of inter-relations. The political practice does the same with social relations as the raw materials. Finally, ideology is the transformation of the way that a subject relates to his real life conditions of existence. This is a rejection of the mechanistic worldview (replete with bases and superstructures). It is a rejection of the Marxist theorization of ideology. It is a rejection of the Hegelian fascist "social totality". It is a dynamic, revealing, modern day model. In it, the very existence and reproduction of the social base (not merely its expression) is dependent upon the social superstructure. The superstructure is "relatively autonomous" and ideology has a central part in it - see entry about Marx and Engels and entry concerning Hegel. The economic structure is determinant but another structure could be dominant, depending on the historical conjuncture. Determination (now called over-determination - see Note) specifies the form of economic production upon which the dominant practice depends. Put otherwise: the economic is determinant not because the practices of the social formation (political and ideological) are the social formation's expressive epiphenomena - but because it determines WHICH of them is dominant. (2) People relate to the conditions of existence through the practice of ideology. Contradictions are smoothed over and (real) problems are offered false (though seemingly true) solutions. Thus, ideology has a realistic dimension - and a dimension of representations (myths, concepts, ideas, images). There is (harsh, conflicting) reality - and the way that we represent it both to ourselves and to others.

Born Aliens

2000-10-05T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Neonates have no psychology. If operated upon, for instance, they are not supposed to show signs of trauma later on in life. Birth, according to this school of thought is of no psychological consequence to the newborn baby. It is immeasurably more important to his "primary caregiver" (mother) and to her supporters (read: father and other members of the family). It is through them that the baby is, supposedly, effected. This effect is evident in his (I will use the male form only for convenience's sake) ability to bond. The late Karl Sagan professed to possess the diametrically opposed view when he compared the process of death to that of being born. He was commenting upon the numerous testimonies of people brought back to life following their confirmed, clinical death. Most of them shared an experience of traversing a dark tunnel. A combination of soft light and soothing voices and the figures of their deceased nearest and dearest awaited them at the end of this tunnel. All those who experienced it described the light as the manifestation of an omnipotent, benevolent being. The tunnel - suggested Sagan - is a rendition of the mother's tract. The process of birth involves gradual exposure to light and to the figures of humans. Clinical death experiences only recreate birth experiences. The womb is a self-contained though open (not self-sufficient) ecosystem. The Baby's Planet is spatially confined, almost devoid of light and homeostatic. The fetus breathes liquid oxygen, rather than the gaseous variant. He is subjected to an unending barrage of noises, most of them rhythmical. Otherwise, there are very few stimuli to elicit any of his fixed action responses. There, dependent and protected, his world lacks the most evident features of ours. There are no dimensions where there is no light. There is no "inside" and "outside", "self" and "others", "extension" and "main body", "here" and "there". Our Planet is exactly converse. There could be no greater disparity. In this sense - and it is not a restricted sense at all - the baby is an alien. He has to train himself and to learn to become human. Kittens, whose eyes were tied immediately after birth - could not "see" straight lines and kept tumbling over tightly strung cords. Even sense data involve some modicum and modes of conceptualization (see: "Appendix 5 -

The Rise of Einsteinian Special Relativity

2000-10-05T14:00:00-04:00
In 1905, Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity was proposed. The reason that it is so "special" is because it was part of the more complex and extensive Theory of General Relativity, which was published in 1915. His theory reshaped the world of physics when it contradicted all previous laws of motion erected by Galileo and Newton. By mathematically manipulating these previous laws of motion, physicists in the nineteenth century were able to explain such phenomena as the flow of the ocean, the orbits of planets around the sun, the fall of rocks, and the random behavior of molecules in gases. At first, Einstein faced great opposition when he came up with his radical new theory because the previous laws of motion proposed by Galileo and expanded upon by Newton had remained valid for over two hundred years. However, it wouldn’t be long before the "cement" in the foundation of Newtonian and Galilean physics would begin to crumble. Galileo had determined in 1608 that merely addition and subtraction could calculate relative speeds. Suppose that an observer stands on the side of the highway, and they watch two cars approach each other at 30 and 40 miles per hour. If they were to ask the question, "how fast is the 40 mile per hour car moving relative to the 30 mile per hour car?" They could solve the problem easily by adding the two speeds of the cars, which would equal 70 miles per hour. This means that the 40 mile per hour car sees the 30 mile per hour car advance at a speed of 70 miles per hour and vice versa. At the core of Newtonian physics was the fact that space and time were absolute. Newton’s absolute space was the space of everyday experience with its three dimensions: east-west, north-south, and up-down. This space gives us our sense of length, breadth, and height; according to Newton. We all, regardless of our motion, will agree on the length, breadth, and height of an object, so long as we make sufficiently accurate measurements. Newton’s absolute time was the time that flows inexorably forward as we age. It is a time whose flow is experienced in common by all humanity. The maximum speeds of birds in nature are regulated by air. No matter what direction a bird flies, it always has the same maximum speed. Newton had proposed something similar for light, which he

Ebola: Human Soup Maker

2000-10-03T14:00:00-04:00
I chose to do my report of the Ebola Virus because it is a very deadly, and it’s a virus that isn’t publicized much in newspapers and televisions. So I think it’s a good choice. The Ebola virus is one of the worlds most deadly viruses, in all of its many forms. The purpose of this essay is to explain the history, signs and symptoms of the Ebola virus. Between the years 425BC & 430BC Athens’ population was dramatically reduced when about 300,000 of its inhabitants died from some sickness. People now believe this sickness was Ebola. The first recorded outbreak of the Zaire string of the Ebola virus was in Zaire in the year 1976. Doctors didn’t know how to treat it, that also means they didn’t know how to contain it. The infected people would meet in public areas, and the virus would spread. In western Sudan, the same year, the Sudan string of the Ebola virus immerged with similar results. In both types of the Ebola virus, combined had 550 infections and 340 deaths, which is a 60% fatality rate. The viruses then laid dormant until 1979, when Sudan was hit again with a smaller infection rate of 34 infections and 22 deaths. As before the fatality rate was about 60%. In 1987 a new string of the Ebola virus was discovered. This string was called the Reston string. This string was air born and it was a mutation of the Zaire string. A group of monkeys that where infected got sent to Virginia from the Philippines. Luckily the string doesn’t infect Homo Sapiens. A lot of workers came in contact with the monkeys, and none of them died, or even showed signed of illness. In Kikwit, Zaire there was another outbreak in 1995. This time a patient was admitted to a hospital, the doctors thought he had Malaria. The surgeons decided to operate because of his worsening symptoms. The whole surgical team came in contact with the patients body fluids, and they were all infected. From this operating room, 293 cases were recorded and 233 deaths, which means a higher fatality rate. In the later part of 1995 another string of the Ebola virus was discovered. A Swiss researcher in West Africa was the first to get the Tai string of the Ebola virus. She got it from a chimpanzee in the Tai forest. She was taken to a hospital

Whitetail Deer

2000-09-27T14:00:00-04:00
The whitetail deer, or scientifically known as Odocoileus virginianus, is one of the most known animals in America. They are found just about everywhere in the United States and can also be found in Canada, Mexico, and Central America. Because they are found all over, deer hunting has become a major sport and in the U.S. People hunt them for food and also for the challenge of getting the "big buck." Whitetails usually grow to three and a half foot tall and weigh 50 to 400 pounds depending on whether it is male or female. The deer reaches its biggest size in the north, up to 4 feet tall and 400 pounds, and it's smallest in the south, where they barely weigh more than 50 pounds. During the summer and fall their fur is reddish brown and during the winter and spring it is blue-gray. They get their name from their tale, which is white on the underside, but probably the deer's most noticeable trait is its antlers, which are only found on males. There are two main "beams" from which the horns come off of, each of them grow from the head backwards but then quickly changes and goes forward. The rest of the horns grow off of these two main horns. The deer antlers are the fastest growing tissue known to man, growing as much as a half an inch daily. When the antlers are growing, they are covered with a living tissue called velvet, during this time they are extremely delicate and sensitive to the touch. Since the deer is a prey species, the ability to run is a big help to its livelihood. They also can also, depending on the situation, trot, walk, or crawl under obstacles. If necessary a deer can reach speeds up to 35 miles per hour, it can also jump up to eight feet in the air to clear fences, logs, or other obstacles. Whitetail deer are found all over the United States, except most of California, Nevada, Utah, northern Arizona, southwest Colorado, and northwest New Mexico. They are also found in Canada and South America. They are found in farmlands, brushy areas, and forests. A deer won't travel far during their lifetime. Their home range is about one square mile. Within this range is all the necessary needs for survival, including food, water, escape cover, and shelter. The only time they leave this range

The Fourth Law of Robotics

2000-09-11T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Sigmund Freud said that we have an uncanny reaction to the inanimate. This is probably because we know that - despite pretensions and layers of philosophizing - we are nothing but recursive, self aware, introspective, conscious machines. Special machines, no doubt, but machines althesame. The series of James bond movies constitutes a decades-spanning gallery of human paranoia. Villains change: communists, neo-nazis, media moguls. But one kind of villain is a fixture in this psychodrama, in this parade of human phobias: the machine. James Bond always finds himself confronted with hideous, vicious, malicious machines and automata. It was precisely to counter this wave of unease, even terror, irrational but all-pervasive, that Isaac Asimov, the late Sci-fi writer (and scientist) invented the Three Laws of Robotics:
A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm
A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law
A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws Many have noticed the lack of consistency and the virtual inapplicability of these laws put together. First, they are not the derivative of any coherent worldview and background. To be properly implemented and to avoid a potentially dangerous interpretation of them - the robots in which they are embedded must be also equipped with a reasonably full model of the physical and of the human spheres of existence. Devoid of such a context, these laws soon lead to intractable paradoxes (experiences as a nervous breakdown by one of Asimov's robots). Conflicts are ruinous in automata based on recursive functions (Turing machines) as all robots must be. Godel pointed at one such self destructive paradox in the "Principia Mathematica" ostensibly comprehensive and self consistent logical system. It was enough to discredit the whole magnificent edifice constructed by Russel and Whitehead over a decade. Some will argue against this and say that robots need not be automata in the classical, Church-Turing, sense. That they could act according to heuristic, probabilistic rules of decision making. There are many other types of functions (non-recursive) that can be incorporated in a robot. True, but then, how can one guarantee full predictability of behaviour? How can one be certain that the robots will fully and always implement the

Taming the Beast: Pathological Narcissism and the Quality of Life

2000-09-11T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Part 1 Many textbooks (and many patients ...) claim that the psychodynamic therapies when applied to personality disorders are ineffective. Functional (cognitive, behavioral) treatments should be preferred in certain cases and regarding certain aspects of the disorder. To a Narcissist, I would recommend a beavioral-cognitive-functional and less protracted type of therapy. (1) Know and accept thyself. This is what you are. You are highly intelligent. You are very inquisitive. You are a Narcissist. These are facts. Narcissism is an adaptive mechanism. It is dysfunctional - but it saves you from a LOT MORE dysfunction or even a-function. Make a list: what does it mean to be a Narcissist in your specific case? What are your typical behaviour patterns? Which types of behaviour are counterproductive, irritating, self-defeating or self-destructive? Which are productive, constructive and should be enhanced DESPITE their pathological origin? (2) Decide to suppress the first and to promote the latter. Construct lists of self-punishments, negative feedback and negative reinforcements. Impose them upon yourself when you exhibit one of the behaviours in the first list. Make a list of prizes, little indulgences, positive feedbacks and positive reinforcements. Use them to reward yourself when you display a behaviour of the second kind. (3) Keep doing this with the express intent of conditioning yourself. Be objective, predictable and just in the administration of both punishments and awards, positive reinforcements and feedback and negative ones. Learn to trust your "inner court". Constrain the sadistic, immature and ideal parts of your personality (known as "superego" in psychoanalytic parlance) by the application of a uniform codex, a set of immutable and invariably applied rules. (4) Once sufficiently conditioned, monitor yourself incessantly. Narcissism is sneaky and it possesses all your resources because it is you. It is intelligent because you are. Beware and never lose control. With time this onerous regime will become a second habit and supplant the Narcissistic (pathological) superstructure. All the above can be amply summed by suggesting to you to become your own parent. This is what parents do and the process is called "education" or "socialization". If your particular path to the adoption of this course is a particular therapy - go ahead. As a metaphor, a narrative, no therapeutic approach is better or worse than any other Part 2 In the previous part we discussed the healing prospects of a Narcissist. yet, how can a False Self be anything

Psychology as Storytelling

2000-09-11T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Storytelling has been with us since the days of campfire and besieging wild animals. It served a number of important functions: amelioration of fears, communication of vital information (regarding survival tactics and the characteristics of animals, for instance), the satisfaction of a sense of order (justice), the development of the ability to hypothesize, predict and introduce theories and so on. We are all endowed with a sense of wonder. The world around us in inexplicable, baffling in its diversity and myriad forms. We experience an urge to organize it, to "explain the wonder away", to order it in order to know what to expect next (predict). These are the essentials of survival. But while we have been successful at imposing our mind's structures on the outside world - we have been much less successful when we tried to cope with our internal universe. The relationship between the structure and functioning of our (ephemeral) mind, the structure and modes of operation of our (physical) brain and the structure and conduct of the outside world have been the matter of heated debate for millennia. Broadly speaking, there were (and still are) two ways of treating it: There were those who, for all practical purposes, identified the origin (brain) with its product (mind). Some of them postulated the existence of a lattice of preconceived, born categorical knowledge about the universe - the vessels into which we pour our experience and which mold it. Others have regarded the mind as a black box. While it was possible in principle to know its input and output, it was impossible, again in principle, to understand its internal functioning and management of information. Pavlov coined the word "conditioning", Watson adopted it and invented "behaviorism", Skinner came up with "reinforcement". But all ignored the psychophysical question: what IS the mind and HOW is it linked to the brain? The other camp was more "scientific" and "positivist". It speculated that the mind (whether a physical entity, an epiphenomenon, a non-physical principle of organization, or the result of introspection) - had a structure and a limited set of functions. They argued that a "user's manual" could be composed, replete with engineering and maintenance instructions. The most prominent of these "psychodynamists" was, of course, Freud. Though his disciples (Adler, Horney, the object-relations lot) diverged wildly from his initial theories - they all shared his belief

Eating Disorders and Personality Disorders

2000-09-11T14:00:00-04:00
Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites Patients suffering from eating disorders binge on food and sometimes are both Anorectic and Bulimic. This is an impulsive behaviour as defined by the DSM (particularly in the case of BPD and to a lesser extent of Cluster B disorders in general). Some patients adopt these disorders as their way of self mutilating. We may be witnessing a convergence of two criteria: self-mutilation and an impulsive (rather, compulsive or ritualistic) behaviour. The key to improving the mental state of patients with dual diagnosis (a personality disorder plus an eating disorder) lies in concentrating upon their eating and sleeping disorders. In my view, these disorders are a blessing in disguise. It is very rarely, even in the lives of normal human beings, that they are faced with a veritable, identifiable enemy. By controlling their eating disorders, patients can assert control over their lives. This is bound to reduce their depression (even eliminate it altogether as a constant feature of their mental life). This is bound to ameliorate other facets of their personality disorders. Here is the chain: controlling eating disorders=controlling my life=I am worthy, I have self-confidence, self esteem and self-worth=I have a challenge, an interest, an enemy to subjugate=I am strong=I can socialize=I feel better (I am a success) etc. When a patient has a personality disorder and an eating disorder, I see no point in concentrating at first on anything but his eating disorder. Personality Disorders are intricate and intractable. They are rarely cured (though certain aspects, like OCD, can be dealt with using medication). It calls for the enormous, persistent and continuous investment of resources of every kind by every one involved. This is not realistic. Also this is not a realistic threat. If a personality disorder is cured but the eating disorders are aggravated, the patient might die (though mentally healthy) ... An eating disorder is both a signal of distress (I wish to die, I feel so bad, somebody help me) and a message: "I think I lost control. I am very afraid of losing control. I will control my food intake and out-take. This way I control at least ONE aspect of my life". This is where we can and should begin to help the patient. Help him to regain control. The family or other supporting figures must think what they can do to make the patient feel that he

Comets: Facts And Parts

2000-09-10T14:00:00-04:00
Structure and composition The comet looks like a dirty snow ball

The Benefits of Science and Technology

2000-08-18T14:00:00-04:00
Man, powered by his imagination and inquisitive character, has wondered he mechanisms of Nature since time infinite. This quest for the truth, the ways in which his surrounding works, has led to many a scientific discoveries and innovations. Since the art of making fire and creating handcrafted tools, our civilization has come a long way. Science and Technology are making advances at an amazing rate. From telephones to the Internet, calculators to computers, cars to rockets and satellites, we are submerged in a sea of discoveries and inventions made possible by Science. Fields like Medicine and communications have made inroads into our cultures and thus our lifestyles. So vast is the impact of Science in our lives, that people fear the unthinkable. It leads them to accusations such as Science tries to play God. However, according to Hume, God is part of the order that exists in the universe. If so, then Science is just helping us discover the Almighty, which most people perceive as the Ultimate Truth. To quote Charles Pierce, ""There is one thing even more vital to science than intelligent methods; and that is, the sincere desire to find out the truth, whatever it may be." Repeatedly, it is also heard that we are so dependent on Science and Technology that we who create it are nothing but mere puppets. How can we be the slaves of this great resource? In fact, it would not be wrong to term Science as a friend of Humanity. This faithful friend has come through many a times. We have reaped innumerable benefits out of this friendship. In return, the sacrifices we had to make constituted just a small price in return. This price can be termed as a small token of appreciation for our friend, Science. According to an existential argument, existence precedes essence. If so, then human existence is absurd and unjustified. The goal of a human being then is to justify his existence. We humans tried to take charge of our own lives by choosing to justify its cause. According to Mahlotra, a person who is aware of the fact that by the freedom of choice we have, we are responsible for our actions and performs those actions acknowledging freedom of others too, is the one who shall find meaning in his life. Satre points out for us that a man is nothing else than a series of undertakings, that

Arthur Kornberg

2000-08-15T14:00:00-04:00
A. Personal Information Arthur Kornberg (1918-), American biochemist and physician, claims he has never met “a dull enzyme.” He has devoted his life to pursuing and purifying these critical protein molecules. His love of science did not spring from a family history rooted in science. He was born on March 3rd, 1918, the son of a sewing machine operator in the sweatshops of the Lower East Side of New York City. His parents, Joseph Aaron Kornberg and Lena Rachel Katz, were immigrant Jews who made great sacrifices to ensure the safety of their family. They had fled Poland, for if they had stayed, they would have been murdered in a German concentration camp. His grandfather had abandoned the paternal family name Queller, of Spanish origin. This was done to escape the fate of the army draft; he had taken the name of Kornberg, a man who had already done his service. His father used their meager earnings to bring and settle his family in New York City and was thrust into the sweatshops as a sewing machine operator. He, along with his brother Martin, 13 years older and sister Ella, nine years older, was encouraged by loving parents to obtain a good education. The public school reinforced this ideal. Education was the road of opportunity for social and economic mobility out of the sweatshops. His early education in grade school and Abraham Lincoln High School in Brooklyn was distinguished only by his “skipping ” several grades. There was nothing inspirational about his courses except the teachers’ encouragement to get good grades. When he received a grade of 100 in the New York State Regents Examination, his chemistry teacher glowed with pride. It was the first time in over twenty years of teaching that a student of his had gotten a perfect grade. Arthur was a brilliant student who graduated from high school at the age of fifteen. He enrolled in City College in uptown Manhattan. Competition among a large body of bright and highly motivated students was fierce in all subjects. His high school interest in chemistry carried over into college. After receiving his B.S. degree in biology and chemistry in 1937, and since City College offered no graduate studies or research laboratories at that time, he became one of two hundred pre-med students at the University of Rochester. All through college he worked as a salesman in his parents’ furnishing store,

Archetypes and Their Influence on the Personality: Carl Gustav Jung

2000-08-03T14:00:00-04:00
Archetypes and Their Influence on the Personality: Carl Gustav Jung
Introduction Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) was born on July 26, in the small village of Kesswil on Lake Constance. He was named after his grandfather, a professor of medicine at the University of Basel. He was the oldest child and only surviving son of a Swiss Reform pastor. Carl attended the University of Basel and decided to go into the field of psychiatry after reading a book that caught his interest. Jung became an assistant at the Burgholzli Mental hospital, a famous medical hospital in Zurich. He studied under, and was influenced by Eugen Bleuler, a famous psychiatrist who defined schizophrenia. Jung was also influenced by Freud, with whom he later became good friends. Their relationship ended when Jung wrote a book called "Symbols of Transformation." Jung disagreed with Freud's fundamental idea that a symbol is a disguised representation of a repressed wish (Heaney, 1994). After splitting up with Freud, Jung had a 2 year period of non-productivity, but then he came out with his "Psychological Types," a famous work. He went on several trips to learn about primitive societies and archetypes. His explorations included trips to Africa, New Mexico to study Pueblo Indians, and to India and Ceylon to study eastern philosophy. He studied religious and occult beliefs like I Ching, a Chinese method of fortune telling. Alchemy became one of his interests during his journeys. His book, "Psychology and Alchemy," published in 1944, is among his most important writings. In this study, he told about the human mind. One of his methods was word association. This is when a person is given a series of words and asked to respond to them. Abnormal response or hesitation can mean that the person has a complex about that word. His basic belief was in complex or analytical psychology. The goal is psychosynthesis, or the unification and differentiation of the psyche (mind). He believed that the mind started out as a whole and should stay that way. That answered structural, dynamic, developmental questions. Jung is best known for his theory of "The three levels of the mind" (Aurelio, 1995). Discussion The three levels of the mind theory includes the ego (conscious), personal unconscious, and collective unconscious. The conscious level serves four functions. It is the part of the personality that carries out normal daily activities: thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting. The personal unconscious contains

History of Monte Carlo Method

2000-07-20T14:00:00-04:00
It could be argued that current physics research could be divided into three areas - theoretical, experimental and computational. Numerical approach, in which systems are mimicked as accurately as possible using a computer

Magnetic Anisotropy Of Fine Particles

2000-07-20T14:00:00-04:00
"Magnetic Anisotropy Of Fine Particles" In nature, single domain particles are magnetized to saturation, where the magnetization has an easy axis, or several easy axes, along which it prefers to

The Gem Of Magnetic Fluids

2000-07-18T14:00:00-04:00
1.1 PRELUDE: The phenomenon of ferromagnetism is associated only with the solid state of matter; like iron, nickel, cobalt and some rare earth metals and their alloys. Thus, up to now, there is no intrinsic homogeneous fluid having ferromagnetic properties; although, theories admit the possibility of ferromagnetism in the liquid state, and suggest that there is no inherent reason why they should not exist [1-3,5]. Ferromagnetism occurs when paramagnetic ions in a solid lock together in such a way that their spins all point (on the average) in the same direction . At a certain temperature this locking breaks down and ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic. This transition temperature is called the Curie point (TC), which is invariably well below the melting point of the corresponding material [1,8,12]. 1.2 MAGNETIC FLUIDS: Magnetic fluids ( MF ) are stable colloidal suspensions of ultrafine ferro- or ferri- magnetic particles ( D100Ao ), coated with a surfactant like oleic acid, in a suitable liquid carriers such as Isopar-M, kerosene, decalin, etc., [1,2]. The idea of MF was put forward independently and almost simultaneously by several investigators. The first prepared MF was developed by Stephen Papell of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in the early 1960s. After that, Ronald E. Rosensweig and his colleagues succeeded in formulating MFs that were 10 times as strong magnetically as Papell`s original MF [1]. The special feature of magnetic fluids is given by the fact, that they combine normal liquid behavior with superparamagnetic properties, as will be discussed later. The possibility of magnetic fluid control gave rise to the development of many technical applications in our everyday life [1-3]. Mixtures are classified into three kinds: colloidal suspensions, suspensions, and solutions, and one of the principal features that differentiate one kind of mixture from another is the size of the particles [6]. Colloidal suspensions (also called colloids) are mixtures that are intermediate between solutions and suspensions. Typically the radius of the particle is of the order 100Ao. Since this is much smaller than the size of a single magnetic domain in bulk solids, which is about , the magnetization of the individual particle is saturated, but the direction of the magnetic moment is subject to thermal agitation [1,2,5]. The particles used are commonly Fe3O4, Fe, Co and Ni. MF is a two-phase system with three components, which combines magnetic properties, carried by the solid magnetic fine particles, with fluidity of the carrier liquid. The

Z.E.N. works - NetWare 5

2000-07-04T14:00:00-04:00
Zero Effort Networks (Z.E.N. works) is a great new tool in NetWare 5, that makes the network administrator’s job a lot easier by allowing him to spend less time at each user workstation. To be able to use the Z.E.N. works these are the minimum hardware requirements:
Processor: 486/33 or higher
Memory: 16 MB (for Windows 95); 24 MB (for Windows NT)
Hard disk space: 4 MB (workstation; 24 MB (full station) Z.E.N. works needs to be installed on the server and the client on the workstation needs to be updated. During the installation process Dynamic Link Libraries (DLLs) are copied to the workstation. DLLs contain subprograms that are called by an application to perform certain operations. Another utility that is included in Z.E.N. works to help the distribution and management of applications is the Application Launcher, which consists of four major components:
Snap-in DLL
Snapshot
Application objects in the NDS tree
Application Launcher Window and Application object The snAppShot utility allows you take a “snapshot” of the Windows workstation before installing the application. The snapshot includes Registry settings along with the names of system and application files on the workstation. After the application has been installed, the snAppShot utility takes another picture of the workstation’s configuration and then uses the two snapshots to create an Application Object Template (AOT) file. The Application Launcher uses the AOT file to determine what Registry settings and system files need to be copied to the workstation to run the application from the network. In addition to including configuration settings and system file names, the AOT file also contains the name of the Application object and the path where you want to store the AOT and installation files. Consequently, before running the snAppShot utility, you need to define the name you want to use for the Application object and decide where the application and AOT files will be stored. The Application Launcher software consists of two components: the wrapper program and the launcher. The wrapper program determines which launcher program (NALW31.EXE, NALWIN32.EXE, or NAL.EXE) to run based on the client computer’s operating system. The launcher program then determines the Application objects to which the user has access and displays a window showing all applications the user has been authorized to run. When the user selects an application, the launcher determines whether the application is installed on the workstation. If this is the first time the user has run the application from this workstation, the application

Genetic Testing and Its Social Implications

2000-06-23T14:00:00-04:00
Probably, applied genetics’ most impacts on society are as a result of genetic tests. In general, genetic tests seek to detect some feature of a person’s genetic constitution. This feature can be a disease causing mutation or a marker DNA sequence used to detect presence of another gene. Obviously these procedures used for testing the status of DNA, RNA or chromosomes are included in genetic tests. What is more it is possible to include some protein based tests and classical medical examinations when they aim to detect inheritance of a trait. Genetic tests have been divided into four categories in this text, and they will be examined in greater detail later. These categories are:
Prenatal tests that are applied on fetuses during pregnancy.
Neonatal screening just after birth and career screening of marrying couples.
Testing for serious late-onset disease before the symptoms occur.
Testing to assess the probability of developing complex disease. There are a couple of considerations about genetic tests: 1. First of all, the tests should be reliable. When a positive or a negative result is obtained, we should be confident in that result with a confidence approaching 100%. To achieve such a high accuracy is not as easy as it may at first appear to be. Meiotic recombinations that always occur take place during gamete generation, may separate a disease-associated gene and a marker DNA sequence which is used to detect mutated genes. False positive or negative results could be obtained. In addition, genetic tests look for the most common mutations that cause the disease. For example, a test would detect CFTR?F508 (Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Receptor) mutation, however it is not possible to detect infinite number of other mutations. Therefore, a genetic test can give such results so that the physician is convinced that his patient is normal while he is affected by an undetectable mutation. New tests are continuously being developed. Doctors and genetic counselors who will use these tests in the future, should be well informed about newly emerging tests. 2. Extremely accurate genetic tests can only be developed by thorough experimentation on human subjects. Although there is generally no physiological risk in experimenting a person, the subjects should be informed that the applied test is not entirely reliable and in experimentation state. Informing subjects of experimentation is an obligation set by the Nuremberg Code. Just after World War II it was discovered that unethical

Computers (general history)

2000-06-18T14:00:00-04:00
In this report, you’ll about the components and history regarding the computer. A computer is a devise that processes, organize, and calculate, displays information. It can communicate with other computers all over the world. The most powerful computer can perform 10s of billion of calculations per second. People use computers for business, track inventories, and use bar codes, personal home use and other things. Computers can produce information, numbers, images, sounds and movies. Embedded computers control devices such as remote controls. Lets talk about the essential parts of the computer. First you have your outside units like your printer, monitors, modem, floppy disk drive, CD ROM drive, scanner, speakers and keyboard. These things are called peripherals. Printers come in inkjet, laser and thermal. Lasers are much faster than inkjets. The monitor is the television like unit where you observe text and images. Modems permit us to connect to the Internet, which is a global communication network. Modems come in many different speeds. Some are 14.4k, 56k these uses a phone line, cable modem (in only large cities, an internet setup that uses a cable line) and many more. Floppy disk drives are drives where you insert a disk to save progress or install programs from .CD ROMs are compact disk that can read only memory. Scanners are flatbed devises that you can look at pictures at more closely. Speakers allow us to here the sounds coming from the computer. The keyboard is an input unit that produces data bits. Inside the computer you have processors (CPU), Ram, semiconductor, hard disk, the bus and the operating system. Central Processing Units (CPU) a microprocessor that is, a single piece of silicon containing millions of electrical components. It’s input device or memory is communicated through the bus to the CPU, which is the part of the computer that translates commands and runs programs. Ram is the physical memory of a computer. You can use it to run programs that require memory to load. The semiconductor is the silicone object used for computer inner circuit components. The Bus it the flat cable of numerous wires that joins in with components in the computer. For Example: connection to the CPU to the hard disk. The hard disk is where the machine stores data and programs. When a computer is turned on it searches it memory it is called the operating system. Windows 98 and Mac are

Bats

2000-06-11T14:00:00-04:00
INTRODUCTION There is an abundant amount of animal species in the world. They all have adapted and evolved to survive in their surroundings. Some have grown fins, others legs, and still others wings. One of the animals that has grown wings is the bat. The bat is a truly great creature. It has all the characteristics of mammals while also possessing the skill of a bird in flight. There are more than 800 species of bats in the world. They are of many different sizes, shapes, and lifestyles. They live all over the world and have drawn the curiosity of millions. Bats also have the unique feature of echolocation that it uses to catch insects. Though other mammals, like the flying squirrel seem to fly but actually glide, the bat is the only mammal that can truly fly (Lauber 1968). A Bat's Body Due to the great variety of species of bats some characteristics vary greatly, but the Little Brown Bat is a good example of a common bat. It has fur on the body, large naked ears, the rear legs have claws, a tail membrane, and it has the most distinguishing feature of a bat, wings (Lauber 1968). The upper arm of the bat is short while the forearm is very long (Fig. 1). The wrist is very small and from it comes the thumb and the four longer fingers. The thumb is short and used for climbing or walking. The fingers are long and thin. Interlocking the fingers is the wing. This arrangement of having the fingers in the wing gives the bat amazing flight maneuverability (Honders 1975). These bones look similar to a human hand. They are connected by rubbery skin to the bat's body enveloping all the fingers but the thumb (Anonymous 1990). Echolocation Bats have a "sixth sense" called echolocation. This was first proved by Donald Griffin. Bats produce ultrasonic sound waves and then use the echo of the returning sound to sense the world around them and in particularly to catch insects. These sounds are usually out of the humans range of hearing (Fellman 1993). This system is similar to that of dolphins. The sound is in the form of clicks that increase as the bat gets closer to the insect or whatever it is tracking (Anonymous 1990). Unlike humans, most insects can hear the bat's echolocation sounds. David D. Yager of the University of Maryland has

Air Resistance, Tyres and Friction

2000-05-25T14:00:00-04:00
Dragsters use a combination of large wide tyres or the rear and small narrow tyres on the front this combination is used for the following reasons: The front wheels: The front wheels are very narrow. This is so a minimum of air resistance or drag affects the dragster with lower drag better acceleration an in turn a better top speed can be achieved all leading to a better pass (race time). Now lets try to understand the concept of air resistance and drag. A basic example is placing your hand out the window with your palm facing forwards as you are driving your car along at about sixty kilometres per hour. You will feel a strong force of the wind (air resistance) pushing back at your hand. Now turn your hand side or so that your little finger is facing the front and your thumb is facing the rear at the same speed. The force of air resistance exerted on your hand is greatly reduced. This force is similar as to that exerted on the front wheels of the dragster. Now dragsters reach speeds of up to five hundred kilometres per hour, imagine the force needed to hold your hand against the wind if your palm was facing the front. It would be much easier to hold your hand side on. The same as it would be much easier for the dragsters engine to push the narrow front wheels compared to large ones. Air resistance is a form of friction (namely fluid friction) a friction from the air, as we know friction is defined as a force that opposes movement. The formula used to determine aerodynamic drag is as follows: Drag = 0.5 * rho * Cd * v2 * S Aerodynamic drag is a function of the following:
rho is the air density, which we cannot change.
v2 is velocity squared which is endeavoured to be maximized for the best time and/or pass.
S is the frontal or cross sectional area which we want to minimize. I.e. less frontal area means that a less significant amount of air resistance impedes the top speed and acceleration.
Cd is the coefficient of drag, which we want to minimize. So the two things with which can be worked with or changed, the frontal area and coefficient of drag, both of which need to be to minimized for the best results. Having very narrow front wheels minimizes the

Seatbelts

2000-05-25T14:00:00-04:00
When travelling at slow speeds in your car the wearing of a seatbelt has little effect of your body when you brake. So why is it important to wear your seat belt? A driver or passenger travelling in a car is moving at the same speed as the car. If the car suddenly stops, the body of the rider inside will keep moving forward at the same speed. This demonstrates inertia. The tendency of a moving object to keep moving, or of a stationary object to remain at rest. Basically Newtons first law; that a body stationary or moving with constant velocity will want to continue to do so, unless acted on by a force. Lets understand what is happening here. First drive along in your car at 60 km/h on a backstreet with no traffic, then brake gently and slowly. You will notice that the seat belt doesn’t really do much to hold your body. Now do the same again but this time break as quickly and sharply as you can. Your body will be thrown forwards with great force, and your seatbelt will be literally holding you in place. Now your body was what is commonly referred to as being "thrown forwards", however this is not the case. Your body was actually not slowing down much at all and your velocity relative to the car initially was much greater. The car began to slow down due to breaking and your body in accordance with Newtons First law wanted to continue to move at the original constant velocity. Now if your seat belt was not there to provide an opposing force, to your momentum and inertia, by holding you from going forwards, you very likely would have been thrown into the dash or steering wheel. Lets look at this mathematically. m= your mass in kilograms for this purposes 70kg V= final velocity 0 m/s U= initial velocity 60 km/h or 16.6 m/s straight line S= distance taken to stop 42 m t= 3.8 a= -4.368 m/s/s Now your momentum at 60km/h is P=MU So P= 70kg*16.6m/s P=1162 Kg m/s Impulse I=MU/t I=70*16.6/3.8 I=305N So your body will weigh about 610kg when you are breaking hard, a force it is difficult for any person to withstand. Now in the context of a head on accident at around 60km/hr the force exerted on your body is greatly increased. In the event of such an accident it will take the car approximately 0.4 seconds to stop. This

Ball Bearings

2000-05-25T14:00:00-04:00
The object of ball bearings (and roller bearings) is the substitution of pure rolling motion for plain sliding friction. Ball Bearings rely on the rolling motion of hardened steel balls to absorb loads. This rolling motion produces far less friction than the sliding motion. These steel balls are held in circular rows between an outer and inner ring, which have raceways, or slots, grooved into them to guide the balls. Ball bearings are available in both filling-slot and no filling-slot types. Other types of bearings have developed from these basic designs, like double-row and deep groove bearings, to handle specific application. No filling-slot bearings have a deep uninterrupted raceway, which allows them to carry both high radial loads as well as moderate Thrust loads. Filling-slot bearings have more balls than no filling bearings of comparable size. This gives them a higher radial load capacity, but Thrust loads must be light. Types of Ball bearing systems: Rigid single row ball bearing. - Basic type of bearing widely used. The balls run in comparatively deep grooved tracks, which make the bearing suitable for both radial (journal) load and axial thrust load. The bearing provides location of the shaft in relation to the housing when provided with suitable means of clamping. Rigid single row bearing with filling slots for balls. - This bearing contains more balls than the standard type and can therefore take heavier radial loads but only limited thrust. Rigid double row bearing. - For heavy radial loads and to provide greater rigidity. Requires accurate location if used in conjunction with another bearing. Self-aligning double row bearing. - For applications in which slight deflections cannot be avoided when rotating. Aligning single row bearing. - This bearing will correct initial angular misalignment between shaft and housing but is not designed to accommodate shaft deflection or misalignment when rotating. Angular contact single row bearing. - Gives precise axial location under thrust load. May be used in pairs to accommodate thrust in either direction. Duplex bearing. - Used to take heavy thrust in either direction or some radial load. Adaptation sleeve bearing. - This bearing is mounted on a tapered split sleeve to simplify assembly on long shafts. No matter what type of ball bearing system they all have one common function, to turn sliding forces into rotational forces, so that the coefficient of friction is reduced and hence so is the force opposing the motion (friction). There is some friction but this is

Engineering Report - Whipper Snipper/Lawn Trimmer

2000-05-25T14:00:00-04:00
Whipper snipper/ Lawn Trimmer No one person or corporation is attributed with creating the lawn trimmer however the original lawn trimmers where developed from1968 to 1970. Prior to 1970, there were no line trimmers, as we know them today. Can you imagine edging sidewalks, driveways, parking lots and shrub beds with hand-held trimmers? Can you imagine how sore your back, arms and legs would be after a long day of pushing a manual edger along seemingly endless sidewalks and driveways? Can you imagine trimming any turf at all without a powered trimmer? Many of us take the advantages the line trimmer gives us for granted. Line trimmers are one of the most important pieces of equipment in the wide array of landscaping tools. They put an edge on sidewalks, shrub and flowerbeds and parking lots. The time we save by using these tools is something people may take for granted these days. Since the early 1970s (when the first powered line trimmers appeared), the machines have improved with stronger line, more attachments and better engines. This is all in the aid of giving more time and quicker action in the increasingly hectic lifestyles of today. The basic trimmer works by the engine driving a multi-bearing supported hardened steel shaft housed in an aluminium tube through a centrifugal clutch this shaft is connected to a “head” that holds a nylon line that spun at high revolutions per minute (RPM). This nylon line then cuts the grass by hitting the blades of grass at high speed, this cause the grass to be severed at the point of impact. Thus trimming the grass. The first models were petrol powered, as electrical lawn mowing devices had gone out of fashion due to the danger of electrocution after accidentally cutting the power cord. The original petrol powered trimmers where two stroke engines around 28 to 32 cubic centimetres in capacity powered by a mixture of “super” petrol and oil, today they are much the same with the exception of being powered by unleaded petrol and oil, but becoming more popular is the electric trimmer. A leader in engine technology Honda has taken the latest accomplishment, with Mini 4-Stroke engines. Powered by the only 360' inclinable (can be turned on any angle and still run properly) 4-stroke engine available today, the new Honda trimmers deliver smooth, dependable power and unsurpassed fuel efficiency. They require no special gas/oil mixtures

The Age of Comets

2000-05-22T14:00:00-04:00
The article summarized below is from THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC (issue Dec.97) by William

Sea Eagles

2000-05-15T14:00:00-04:00
The sea eagle, which is also called an erne, is not closely or at all related to the golden eagles but is somewhat realted to certain kinds of vultures. The sea eagal has unfethered lower legs, and a bright yellow bill. Which is a lot longer and heavier than the gray bill of the golden eagals. Sea eagles live in costal regions and around lakes, and streams, they feed a lot but not all on fish. The bald eagle which is the national bird of the United States,

Flagella and Cilia

2000-05-15T14:00:00-04:00
Flagella Flagella are necessary for the active movement of bacterial cells and protozoa. Flagella are single, whip-like structures that propel an

Why Software Systems Fail

2000-05-05T14:00:00-04:00
1.0 Introduction In this report I will be concentrating on the failure of software systems. To understand why software systems fail we need to understand what are software systems. Software systems are a type of information system. This is because a software system is basically a means for hardware to process information. Flynn’s definition of an information system is: "An information system provides procedures to record and make available information, concerning part of an organization, to assist organization-related activities." Humans have been processing information manually for thousands of years, but with the vast increase of demand for knowledge this century has meant that a new method of information processing has been needed. Software systems have provided a new means that is much faster and efficient. As a result a huge number of organisations have become software dependent. Some of these systems are used to safeguard the lives of many people. This means that if these systems were to fail they could lead to devastating consequences. Here are some examples of where software systems are used heavily and could be very dangerous if they were to fail - aviation, hospitals, space exploration, nuclear power stations and communications. I will be looking at some examples of actual software failure in these fields to explain the reasons why systems fail. 2.0 Reasons for Systems Failure If software systems failure can be so dangerous why can they not be completely eliminated? According to Parnas, "The main reason is that software can never be guaranteed to be 100% reliable. Software systems are discrete-state systems that do not have repetitive structures. The mathematical functions that describe the behaviour of software systems are not continuous, and traditional engineering mathematics do not help in their verification." In other words some software can be so large that thorough testing can be almost impossible and so bugs in the software can go unnoticed. An example of this was when an Atlas-Agena rocket veered off-course when it was ninety miles up. Ground control had to destroy the $18.5 rocket. The reasons for this - a missing hyphen. However there are many more reasons for software systems failure, and most of them are due to human negligence that leads to software failure. There are two types of software systems failure. These are in the design stage of

The Internet

2000-05-04T14:00:00-04:00
Imagine life today without the convenience of the Internet. People would actually have to get up out of their comfortable chairs, get in their cars, and drive to the store, the library, the mall, or wherever they wanted to go. Wouldn't that just be a shame? But the Internet has not always been used for the entertainment, in the beginning it was only used by military personnel for communication reasons. In fact, if you were not a computer expert or a genius, you could not even begin to figure out the very complex system known as the Internet. The Internet is the child of several marriages: The government to science, and the telecommunications industry to the computer and software industry. The Internet was the result of some visionary people in the early 1960's who saw great potential value in allowing computers to share information on research and development in scientific and military fields. In, J. Licklider, proposed a global network of computers, and moved to the Defense Advanced Research Projects to develop it. One of Lickliders colleagues, Lawrence Roberts, came close to connecting the first computers in California and Massachusetts, but because the telephone's circuit switching was inadequate the connection was unable to be established. It was not until 1966 that the first Internet was actually conceived. Originally, This project was only meant to be a small network connecting super computers amongst researchers in the United States. This network became known as the Advanced Research Project Agency(Net) or the ARPANET. The innovators of this network wanted to see the ARPANET connect more than just super computers, they wanted people around the United States to be able to use the ARPANET. In 1967 these innovators went to the Association of Computing Machinery Symposium and presented papers to legalize their endeavors. In 1967 they were approved by the ACMS to continue their work, and in 1968 the first software and networking hardware were designed, and by 1969 the ARPANET had connected four universities in the southwestern United States. These schools included: Stanford Research Institute, UCLA, UC Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah. By 1971 fifteen more schools had been added to this network including a university in Hawaii. Although the Internet was constructed for military purposes it was slowly moving away from those roots. The network was becoming so commercial that librarians began automating and networking their catalogs. By 1973 the ARPANET

Genetically Engineered Food

2000-05-03T14:00:00-04:00
Millions of people all over the planet suffer from poverty and starvation. One very interesting but experimental solution to the problem of world hunger is genetically engineered food. The process involves the crossbreeding of crops in a laboratory with species that are not plant like. Say for example, that a scientist crossed a fish and a potato. The diversity of this gene mixture is supposed to give this hybrid crop special characteristics like resistance to disease, the ability to deal with extreme environmental situations, and much higher crop yields at harvest time. The production of genetically enhanced food is considered a radical approach to dealing with the world hunger crisis. Critics of gene refined food believe that tampering with the natural order of environmental evolution can be potentially dangerous. "There is an uncertainty about the effects that chemical experimenting could have on non-target species (http://www.globalissues.org/EnvIssues/GEFood/IsGEFoodSafe.asp)." Meaning that scientists fear that extracting genes that perform an apparently useful function as part of a plant or animal may not have the same effects if inserted into a totally unrelated species. These potentially dangerous mixes could create deformed, mutant like crops and animals. The effects that such altered species could have on the environment and peoples overall health is uncertain. Though the process has been proven successful in the lab, many experts feel that serious precautionary measures should be taken before genetically engineered food is mass-produced and sold on the open market. Politics act as the major obstacle in the way of genetically engineered food production. The fact is that legal advances such as copy writes and distribution need to be taken care of first. Despite the advances in genetic food, some forms of these foods still need the aid of pesticides, which are harmful to the soil and insect life. The old saying, "Time is money" can be used to explain why it may be unlikely that these foods will ever make the mainstream market. The red tape surrounding the issue makes the idea of production unattractive to companies who may be interested in investing. Trying to back the production of genetically engineered food would be a bad business move because it is too difficult to get past government health regulations. It would take too long maybe years before bankers would receive returns on their investments. Most analysts of gene enhanced food believe that it is unnecessary to take such an extreme step

Body Composition

2000-05-03T14:00:00-04:00
According to Mosbey's Medical, Nursing, & Allied Health Dictionary, Body Composition is defined as the relative proportions of protein, fat, water, and mineral components in the body. It varies as a result of differences in body density and degree of obesity. Basically body composition describes the percentages of fat, bone, and muscle in a persons body. The percentages of body fat a person has determines their overall health and fitness when compared to factors like age, weight, and sex. Body composition also contributes to a persons overall appearance. A healthy male should have about12 to 18 percent of fat. Females should have around 14 to 20 percent. Any thing over or under these percentages would be considered unhealthy.The term's weight and fat are usually used in the same context when discussing physical fitness. Under certain circumstances, being overweight doesn't mean that a person is unhealthy. A person could be in good physical shape but considered overweight because they have excess muscle. People with a lot of muscle mass usually have body weight, which is disproportional to their height. Having a high percentage of fat is unhealthy because it can cause heart disease, high blood pressure, and diabetes.It is important to know your body fat percentage because it can help you put together a realistic exercise program with goals that are attainable. A good exercise program incorporates both aerobic exercises, which burn fat and anaerobic exercises, which build muscle. It is healthier to turn fat into muscle instead of just trying to loose weight without thinking about gaining strength. The best way for a person to change his or her body composition is to improve their fitness levels. Fitness has different meanings to different people. Some people define fitness as having a small waistline. Other people may feel that fitness is the ability to bench-press their body weight ten times. And other people may feel that fitness is just being free from sickness. True fitness is a balance of all of the components of health. These components include aerobic endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition. Sources
http://rcc.webpoint.com/fitness/combasic.htm
Mosby's Medical, Nursing, & Allied Health Dictionary, Edition 5, 1998 p. 134E
Werner W.K. Hoeger and Sharon A. Hoeger, 1998, Lifetime Physical Fitness & Wellness, 1998 by Morton

The Acid Rain Issue

2000-04-28T14:00:00-04:00
Acid Rain is a serious problem with disastrous effects. Every day this problem increases. Many believe that this issue is too small to deal with, but if the acid rain problem is not met with head on, the effects on people, plants, animals, and the economy will only worsen. In the following paragraphs you will learn what acid rain is, the effects it has on human life, animals, the economy, the economic costs, and what is being done to help to stop this problem. This topic is very important because acid rain effects everyone everywhere all over the world.I. What is acid rain?Acid rain is the combination of two chemicals released into the atmosphere. These chemicals are sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (Nox). Natural sources such as volcanoes, sea spray, rotting vegetation and plankton are all contributors to acid rain, but burning fossil fuels, such as coal and oil which are referred to as dry emissions are largely to blame for more than half of the emissions into the world.2 Nationally, one hundred and twenty tons of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are emitted into the air each day.4A. How is acid rain formed?When the sulfur dioxide reaches the atmosphere, it oxidizes to first form a sulfate ion. It then becomes sulfuric acid when it joins with hydrogen atoms in the air and falls back down to earth, usually in the form of rain, snow, or fog.1 Oxidation occurs the most in clouds and heavily polluted air where other compounds such as ammonia and ozone help to catalyze the reaction, converting more sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid. The following are the stoichiometric equations for the formation of sulphuric acid:S (in coal) + O2 ? SO22 SO2 + O2 ? 2 SO3SO3 + H2O ? H2SO4Nitric oxide and nitric dioxide are also components of acid rain. Its sources are mainly from power stations and exhaust fumes. Like sulphur dioxide, these nitrogen dioxides also rise into the air and are oxidized in the clouds to form nitric acid. Through this diagram you can better understand how acid rain is formed and emitted into the earth:II. Effects of acid rainAcid rain causes problems in almost every aspect of the environment. Acid rain can have a devastating effect on aquatic life, crops, forests, buildings, and also human life. A. The human environmentAcid rain has a multiplicity of effects in the human environment. The

Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)

2000-04-25T14:00:00-04:00
Approximately five million people in the U.S., or about one in every 50 Americans, suffer from OCD. That’s about 2%, a substantial number of sufferers. It affects men, women, and children, as well as people of all races, religions, and socioeconomic backgrounds. OCD is an anxiety disorder characterized by symptoms that can include powerful, unwanted, or recurrent thoughts and/or compulsive, repetitive behaviors. Some of the most common obsessions are:
Fear of contamination
Fear of causing harm to another
Fear of making a mistake
Fear of behaving in a socially unacceptable manner
Need for symmetry or exactness
Excessive doubt Some of the most common compulsions may include:
Cleaning/Washing
Checking
Arranging/Organizing
Collecting/Hoarding
Counting/Repeating Obsessions are unwanted, recurrent and unpleasant thoughts that cause anxiety. Compulsions are repetitive, ritualistic behaviors that the person feels driven to perform to decrease anxiety. At least 80 percent of patients with OCD have both obsessions and compulsions. OCD appears to be caused by increased activity in the orbital frontal cortex and caudate nucleus of the brain. OCD may also involve abnormal functioning of the neurotransmitter seratonin in the brain. Stress does not cause OCD; however, a stressful event can trigger the disorder. There are no hard facts to tell how OCD is obtained. OCD is thought to be a genetic disorder. This idea has plenty of evidence and is believed by most doctors. The chemical imbalance in the Brain is an imbalance of Seratonin and Dompamine. 80 percent of the people with OCD have another disorder called Tourettes Syndrome (TS). This syndrome is caused by the imbalance of Dompamine in the Brain. This causes the person to have muscular and/or verbal spasm which are called tics. Some people who are familiar with TS may think of people shaking wildly of cursing a lot, but that is only in a severe case. These are a couple of examples, or case studies, that I got off the internet. I. Dick Up until this year, Dick had done fairly well in school, played basketball, held down a part time job cleaning a fish plant, and spent most weekends with his girl friend. Over the last year, he has had to let most of this go. His girlfriend found someone who had more time, he quit his job, and he stopped going to basketball. He could barely get his schoolwork done. Why? It took him about three hours to get ready in

Parkinson's Disease

2000-04-16T14:00:00-04:00
James Parkinson first discovered Parkinson's Disease in 1817. Parkinson's Disease is a common neurologic disorder for the elderly. It is a disorder of the brain characterized by shaking and difficulty with walking, movement, and coordination. This disease is associated with damage to a part of the brain that controls muscle movement. Parkinson's Disease is a chronic illness that is still being extensively studied. Parkinson's Disease has caused problems for many people in this world and plagued the elderly all over the world. Parkinson's disease still puzzles doctors and the causes are unknown. It is known that it is a non-communicable disease and may even be hereditary. Parkinson's disease is thought to be caused by external factors. Most of the cases of this disease are caused by progressive deterioration of the nerve cells, which control muscle movement. Dopamine, one of the substances used in the brain to transmit impulses, is produced in the area of deterioration. Without this vital dopamine nerve cells cannot properly transmit messages resulting in a loss of muscle function. Parkinson's Disease is a non-communicable disease and doctors have not yet found out whether or not it is a hereditary disease. Parkinson's Disease has many distinct symptoms. The symptoms are:
Muscle Rigidity
stiffness
difficulty bending arms or legs
unstable, stooped, or slumped-over posture
loss of balance
walking pattern changes
slow movements
difficulty beginning to walk
difficulty initiating any voluntary movement
small steps followed by the need to run to maintain balance
freezing of movement when the movement is stopped, inability to resume - movement
muscle aches and pains
shaking, tremors (varying degrees, may not be present)
characteristically occur at rest, may occur at any time
may become severe enough to interfere with activities
may be worse when tired, excited, or stressed
finger-thumb rubbing (pill-rolling tremors) may be present
changes in facial expression
reduced ability to show facial expressions
"mask" appearance to face
staring
may be unable to close mouth
reduced rate of blinking
voice/speech changes
slow speech
low-volume voice
monotone
difficulty speaking
loss of fine motor skills
difficulty writing, may be small and illegible
difficulty eating
difficulty with any activity that requires small movements
movement, uncontrolled- slow
frequent falls
decline in intellectual function (may occur, can be severe)
a variety of gastrointestinal symptoms, mainly constipation In order to diagnose whether or not a person has Parkinson's Disease based on the symptoms a physical examination can be preformed. Symptoms are often hard for a doctor to assess, especially in the elderly because

History of C++: Origins and Examples

2000-04-14T14:00:00-04:00
Origins of C++ What are C++ and OOP? C++ is an advanced, high-level programming language (“Computer languages”) that is used to develop powerful applications for Microsoft® Windows®, many Linux environments, and other well-known and widely used operating systems. C++ is quickly becoming the standard language for commercial software development (Oualline). OOP, an abbreviation for object-oriented programming is simply code that “attempts to place a new layer of abstraction between the programmer and the data he is working with … this layer will help the programmer develop better code more quickly than he could do before.” (McHale). OOP languages must include four fundamental concepts before it may reasonably be defined as object-oriented (O-O): encapsulation, polymorphism, inheritance and the ability to be dynamic (McHale). Where did C++ come from? C++ was designed and implemented by Bjarne Stroustrup who works for AT&T Bell Labs as head of the Large-Scale Program Research department where he is heavily involved with the evolution of his product (Duffy, 98). His development, originally called “C with classes” was a marriage between a language called Simula67 with object-orientated features and C, which was powerful and efficient in its design. Fortran John Backus at IBM developed Fortran in 1956. Fortran, an abbreviation and acronym for FORmula TRANslation system, is generally considered to be the first high-level programming language. Fortran is, even today, a language of choice among programmers, its latest release, Fortran 90, in 1990. Early versions of this language would be largely criticized today [there were a few problems like the program layout, which had to obey certain criteria like an 80 character maximum line (the length “of a punch card on which the programs were often written”) (Parsons) and the first six columns were reserved for labels and comments, denoted by the keyword C]; however, this language influenced every language used today in the programming community in some way. A sample Fortran program would look like this (the digits 1, 2, and 3 in this program are labels and .GT. signifies a comparison checking to see if the variable, H, is Greater Than 5): C EXAMPLE FORTRAN CODE DIMENSION A(5), B(5,2) INTEGER H DO 1 I = 1,5 1 A(I) = 6 - I H = 1 3 IF (H.GT.5) GO TO 2 B(H,1) = 1 B(H,2) = 5 + 3 * (H - A(H) ) H = H + 1 GO TO 3 2 STOP END (Parsons) ALGOL Algol, short for ALGOrithmic Language, is perhaps the most influential programming language ever created. The first implementation arose

Genetic Engineering

2000-04-11T14:00:00-04:00
At the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland, Dr. Keith Campbell, director of embryology at PPL therapeutics in Roslin, and his colleague Dr. Ian Wilmut worked together on a project to clone a sheep, Dolly, from adult cells. On February 22, 1997, they finally succeeded. Dolly was the only lamb born from 277 fusions of oocytes with udder cells. Wilmut says there were so many failures because it is difficult to ensure that the empty oocytes and the donor cell are at the same stage of the cell division cycle. To clone Dolly, basically scientists took an unfertilized egg cell, removed the nucleus, replaced it with cells taken from the organism to be cloned, put it into an empty egg cell which begins to develop as an embryo, and implanted this embryo into a mother, from which the clone was born. The fact that only 1 out of 277 attempts succeeded is a little scary when applied to human beings. If an attempt to clone a human led to that high of a death toll, then there would not be many supporters. According to Rifkin, in an extensive survey of all 106 clinical trials of experimental gene therapies conducted over the past five years involving more than 597 patients, a panel of experts convened by the NIG reported that "Clinical efficacy has not been definitively demonstrated at this time in any gene therapy protocol, despite anecdotal claims of successful therapy." (545). These results are also happening with people who are trying to get gene therapy. With these facts on the table, it would not be ideal to try to clone humans if cloning an animal took several hundred attempts and human gene therapy has had hundreds of failures as well. Humans are going way beyond their limits in the field of biotechnology in the world today. Until recently, these ideas were unheard of. Now with new technology, scientists are capable of changing an organism's genetic make-up. We are very eager to learn new things, however, this eagerness gets in the way of common sense all too often. As stated in Starr and Taggart's article, "we do not have the wisdom to bring about beneficial changes without causing great harm to ourselves or to the environment." (514). However, the naïve public may want to jump right into things, and scientists will not disagree. Scientists are messing with things that they should not be messing with. Once

Alchemy -The Predecessor of Modern Chemistry

2000-04-11T14:00:00-04:00
There are many ways to examine the subject of alchemy, including alchemy as a source of symbolism, psychology, and mysticism. It has also been an influence on the world view of various writers, artist, and musicians. The focus of this report is alchemy as a pre-chemistry, which gave a new impulse towards the preparation of medicinal remedies and also was a major influence on today's scientific investigations. Alchemy is an ancient art, practiced in the Middle Ages. The fundamental concept of alchemy stemmed from Aristotle's doctrine that all things tend to reach perfection. Because other metals were thought to be less perfect than gold, it was reasonable to believe that nature created gold out of other metals found deep within the earth and that a skilled artisan could duplicate this process. It was said that once someone was able to change, or transmute a "base" chemical into the perfect metal, gold, they would have achieved eternal life and salvation. In this way, alchemy turned into not only a scientific quest, but a spiritual quest as well. Although the purposes and techniques were often times ritualistic and fanciful, alchemy was in many ways the predecessor of modern science, especially the science of chemistry. The birthplace of alchemy was ancient Egypt, where, in Alexandria, it began to flourish during the Hellenistic period. Also at that time, a school of alchemy was developing in China. The writings of some Greek philosophers may be considered to be among the very first chemical theories, such as the theory that all things are composed of air, earth, fire, and water. Each of these were represented by different elements, such as sulfur, salt, mercury, and, ideally, gold. Other ideas held by alchemists were that each of the known elements were represented by heavenly bodies. Gold was earth's representation of the sun, silver for the moon, mercury for the planet Mercury, copper for Venus, iron for Mars, tin for Jupiter, and lead for Saturn. The typical alchemist's laboratory in Renaissance Europe was a dark, cluttered place that stank of smoke and mysterious chemicals. Many alchemists worked at home, in order to save money and avoid outside interference. Some settled in the kitchen, to take advantage of the cooking fire. Others chose the attic or cellar, where late-night activity was less likely to be noticed by inquisitive neighbors. These small, makeshift laboratories were often filled with a grimy jumble of instruments,

Wal-Mart: Not A Villain

2000-04-11T14:00:00-04:00
I live in Mentor, Ohio, a suburb about thirty-five miles east of Cleveland. It used to be all greenhouses, until a few decades ago when it began the process of commercialization, along with other neighboring cities. Big-name stores moved into town, slowly at first. After awhile, along came a shopping mall and stores such as K-Mart. These businesses really began to change the community for the better. As the area became more developed, more people moved there. Eventually Wal-Mart made its way into town. The onset of competition forced K-mart to relocate (less than a mile down the road from the original site, across the street from where the Wal-Mart was being built) and upgrade to a Super K-Mart Center. The difference between K-Mart and Super K-Mart is that Super K-Mart has everything that regular K-Mart has, but it is now also equipped with a complete grocery section. This enables customers to do all of their shopping in one location. It all started in 1962. The first Wal-Mart Discount City opened that year in Rogers, Arkansas, and the franchise has been growing exponentially ever since. In 1980 there were 276 stores, and in the year 2000, there are more than 3,400 Wal-Marts in every state of the USA and a handful of foreign countries. These countries include Germany, Mexico, Canada, Brazil, and Korea, to name a few. Wal-Mart has aspirations to be globally recognized like McDonald's and Coca-Cola. For five years, the state of Vermont waged a war against Wal-Mart, refusing to let any of these super stores inside state boundaries. Eventually Wal-Mart won the battle and the first store opened in Bennington, Vermont. Instead of expected protests, Wal-Mart's business was booming. During the first week, the store had almost 1.5 times as many transactions as people live in the town. According to "Shopping With the Enemy", town life will never be the same because "people crave the low prices, large selection and convenient parking," offered by discount stores (146). In the article "Wal-Mart's War on Main Street," by Sarah Anderson, it is correctly stated that "rural life is changing and there's no use denying it." (Anderson 139) Even without imposing businesses, the technological advances of today make the world smaller and smaller. It used to be that in rural places there would be one farm and then nothing for miles. There wasn't much contact with people outside of one's family. Today

The Internet Effect: How has it affected You?

2000-04-01T14:00:00-04:00
Commonly known as the Internet, the world’s largest network is used extensively throughout the world today. Since its creation in 1983, the Internet has continued to grow in popularity and use as a commercial and private communications medium. Millions of people throughout the world use the Internet in a variety of ways, ranging from personal conversations to on-line shopping. According to a survey compiled by Nua Ltd in 1999, the number of Internet users rose from 26 million in 1995 to 205 million in 1999, an increase of almost 700% (Nua Ltd)! With such an explosive increase, how then has the Internet affected us personally, and how has it affected the way we do business? The answers to these questions include changes in the way people obtain information, interact, work, learn and conduct business. Given the Internet’s original purpose is to share information, it is no wonder that the most important asset of the Internet is the wealth of information that can be found on the Internet (Maney 3). Information previously found only in libraries and encyclopedias is now available on the Internet; in addition, news, weather, and movie listings are also made available on the Internet. Internet users constantly remain informed of the world around them by reading news from the New York Times, USA Today, San Jose Mercury News, Los Angeles Times and many other newspapers found on-line. Even those like myself who are far away from home can keep in touch by reading local newspapers published on the Internet. Along with the vast amount of information, the Internet also provides almost instant sharing and distribution of information. Through the use of electronic mail, people all over the world can “send information to far-away places cheaply, easily and in great volume – much more than any medium before it” (Maney 3). This form of communication known as email is the most widely used tool of the Internet today. Another invention of the Internet is the chat room. From within a chat room, people make friends with others throughout the world and share information with one another in real time. Because of email and chat capability, employees can work together without requiring that everyone work in the same place or even at the same time (Maney 4). On a more personal level, email and chat allow families and friends to stay in touch, keeping relationships intact. Being an international student myself,

Genetic Disorders

2000-03-24T13:00:00-04:00
Each year a number of children are born with biological defects that impair normal function. For THREE of the following conditions, discuss such aspects as the biological cause, the methods of treatment and possible means of detection and/or prevention. One lethal disorder inherited as a recessive allele is Tay-Sachs disease. This is caused by a dysfunctional enzyme that fails to break down brain lipids of a certain class. The symptoms usually become manifest a few months after birth. Some symptoms are seizures, blindness and degeneration of motor and mental performance. Death is the result of this disease, in children. With Tay-Sachs disease, the brain cells of a baby are unable to metabolize gangliosides, a type of lipid, because a crucial enzyme does not work properly. As the lipids accumulate in the brain, the brain cells gradually cease to function normally. Only children who inherit two copies of the Tay-Sachs allele qualifies as a recessive. At the biochemical level, we observe an intermediate phenotype characteristic of incomplete dominance: The enzyme deficiency that causes Tay Sachs disease can be detected in heterozygotes, who have an activity level of the lipid-metabolizing enzyme that is intermediate between individuals homozygous for the normal allele and individuals with Tay-Sachs disease. Heterozygotes lack symptoms of the disease, apparently because half the normal amount of functional enzyme is sufficient to prevent lipid accumulation in the brain. In fact, heterozygous individuals produce equal numbers of normal and dysfunctional enzyme molecules. At the molecular level, the normal allele and the Tay-Sachs allele are codominant. Sickle-cell disease is caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein of red blood cells. When the oxygen content of an affected individual’s blood is low, the sickle-cell hemoglobin deforms the red cells to a sickle shape. Sickling of the cells, in turn, can lead to other symptoms. The multiple effects of a double dose of the sickle-cell allele exemplify pleiotropy, which is the ability of a gene to affect an organism in many ways. Regular blood transfusions could be used to ward off brain damage in children with sickle-cell disease. Heterozygotes with the sickle-cell allele may suffer some symptoms of the disease when there is a reduction of blood oxygen. Since the two alleles are codominant at the molecular level; both normal and abnormal hemoglobins are made. Only individuals who are homozygous for the sickle-cell allele suffer from the disease. Down syndrome

The Digestive System

2000-03-18T13:00:00-04:00
The digestive system is a group of organs that perform the process by which food, containing nutrients, is eaten and broken down into different components. This breakdown makes it possible for the digested material to pass through the intestinal wall into the blood stream. The digestive process contains many different steps that take place in many different organs. The first step of digestion begins at the mouth, where the food enters the mouth. Saliva is secreted from the salivary glands. The saliva contains enzymes such as Ptyalin, which starts sugar digestion. The enzymes also provide lubrication to help in the chewing and swallowing of the food. The food then goes down the esophagus and into the stomach, where the next step of digestion takes place. In the stomach, a mixture of hydrochloric acid and Pepsin, which is secreted by the stomach wall, liquefies the food. At the same time, a substance called intrinsic factor binds Vitamin B in food and various gastric enzymes, such as Pepsin (which begins protein digestion), which are secreted by the stomach wall. Secretions of mucus protect the stomach from its digestive enzymes. The food is then mixed in the stomach, turning it into chyme(digested food). The muscular pumping motion called peristalsis churns the chyme around. The chyme then passes through the pyloric valve by peristalsis to the first portion of the small intestine, the duodenum. The duodenum is where most of the chemical digestion takes place. Here, bile from the gallbladder and enzymes from the pancreas and intestinal walls combine with the chyme to begin the final part of digestion. Bile liquid is created in the liver, and stored in the gallbladder. Bile aids in the mechanical digestion of fat. The pancreas and gland cells of the small intestine secrete digestive enzymes that chemically break down complex food molecules into simpler ones. These enzymes include trypsin for protein digestion, amylase for carbohydrate digestion, and lipase for fat digestion. When the food passes through the duodenum, the digestion is complete. From the duodenum, the chyme passes to the jejunum and ileum, where tiny finger-like objects called villi, cover the walls. These villi start the absorption of food. During the absorption, food molecules enter the blood stream through the walls of the intestine. From the small intestine, the digested products travel to the liver. Liver cells filter the blood of any harmful substances such as alcohol and ammonia. Once food has passed

Hawaiian Volcanoes

2000-03-15T13:00:00-04:00
Viewing an erupting volcano is a memorable experience; one that has inspired fear, superstition, worship, curiosity, and fascination throughout the history of mankind. The active Hawaiian volcanoes have received special attention worldwide because of their frequent spectacular eruptions, which can be viewed and studied with a relative ease and safety. The island of Hawaii is composed of five volcanoes, three of which have been active within the past two hundred years. Kilauea’s latest eruption still continues as of today. Mauna Loa’s latest activity was in 1984 and Hualalai’s in 1800-1801, but is likely to erupt again within the next one hundred years. East Maui, or Haleakala, one of the oldest volcanoes, has a long eruptive history and recent activity indicates that the volcano will erupt in the near future. Last but not least, the Loihi Seamount, sometimes known as the “youngest volcano” is an undersea mountain this is still active. Scientists now believe that the hot spots lie in the ocean, deep beneath the volcanoes. These hot spots spew out of molten rock that rises to the water’s surface and hardens. After doing this for a long time, the hardened lava forms an island, like the Hawaiian islands (Volcanoes Online). The Kilauea volcano is one of the most active volcanoes on earth. It’s current eruption started in January 1983, and there is no signs that the current eruption is slowing or will come to an end anytime soon. The U.S. Geological Observatory monitors the daily activities of the volcano, for example-movement of lava flows, earthquakes, surface deformation, and gas production. Kilauea has been monitored ever since, making it one of the better-studied volcanoes. Still there is much we don’t understand about the inner workings of this volcano. Unlike most other volcanoes though, Kilauea is approachable. It has been called the “drive up” volcano because of the ease of access to many of its volcanic activity. On February 24, 2000, an article came out, which was entitled Breakouts result from tube blockages. It stated: The intrusion of magma into the upper east rift zone of Kilauea on February 23 caused minor but noticeable changes in the opening eruption. Lava continued to enter the tube system at Pu’u’O’o, but blockages in the tube above the pali resulted in many breakouts on the active flow field. (Hawaii Center for Vocanology) Kilauea shares the hot spot with its larger active sibling Mauna Loa, and with the Loihi

Aerospace Engineers

2000-03-13T13:00:00-04:00
Aerospace engineers examine, analyze, design, produce, and occasionally install components that make up aircraft, spacecraft, high-altitude vehicles, and high-altitude delivery systems (missiles). Satisfaction with the romantic image of rocket building can buoy many engineers through the highly anonymous work environments that many of them face. Individuals don't assemble rockets; teams do, dozens of teams working in highly supervised coordination. An aerospace engineer plays some part on one of the teams, spending more of her time (roughly 70 percent) in a lab, at a computer, and assembling reports than doing anything else. Not being able to see the "big picture" frustrates some professionals. The path to becoming an aerospace engineer is a rigorous one, but those who manage to survive the difficult lift-off emerge with an above-average degree of career satisfaction. Academic requirements are strict and wide-ranging: Physics, chemistry, computer science, mathematics, materials science, statistics and engineering courses provide the base for any aspiring rocket scientist. Some colleges offer a degree in aerospace engineering; others offer a more generalized engineering degree with some coursework in aerospace engineering. These courses might include aerospace guidance systems, extreme-altitude material science, and the physics of high-altitude radiation. Internships, summer jobs, and any experience in the field are helpful, as entry into this industry is highly competitive. Many aspirants may need to relocate to California, Washington State, or Texas, where the majority of defense industry aerospace work is done, to work for companies such as NASA, Boeing and Lockheed Martin. Two years into their job an aerospace engineer can be planning on being Junior members of research staff are swamped with work, both in the lab and in offices, crunching data and organizing research. More like "lab assistants," their early years are marked by relatively menial tasks (testing of equipment, tracking results) with little input into the testing or recommendation process. Average hours and pay characterize these environments, but education continues apace. Few people leave the profession during these years; the hours already devoted in school make it easier to tolerate these few extra workplace indignities. And in about five years one will be leading research teams and turn into people managers as well as project managers. This is an unanticipated turn of events for some, as it removes them from the challenging, intellectually rarefied environment they enjoy and places them in a more administrative role. Most significant design and production work is done in these years.

The Internet Guard Dog

2000-03-08T13:00:00-05:00
Who is supposed to be the watchdog on the net? This question will raise the temperature in almost any room. The government already has to many regulations on lots of things, who wants Uncle Sam’s hand in the web. Some of the regulations that are applied are there for specific reasons. Those protect the people before the damage to say a young child posing for porn can be done. Those people that would be trying to regulate the Internet could be going after those sick, pathetic petafiles that float around in the child chat rooms. In my opinion, the parents should be the ones that are responsible for what their children view on the Internet. The net itself can be very valuable if used as a tool for learning. In the group Families Against Internet Censorship, they understand the concept of parental filtering (Censorship 2000). One of the families uses primarily the Internet to home-school their children. When a child signs on to the web, he or she has almost infinite resources right at the ends of their fingertips. Where else can you maximize the worlds resources from inside the comforts of home. I know that a young teenager can productively use this information. I have been using the net for about eight years for my reports and personal knowledge quests. My father would check on me every now and again to make sure I was on task. Not only was he keeping what I viewed pg13, he was helping me use different search engines and being my troubleshooter until I could surf the web by myself. Lots of the children now days are just tuned loose with a computer and not checked on until suppertime or bedtime. With that much freedom come temptation, this leads to the children looking up porn, explosives, or something else that their parents would not want them to look at. In my opinion, pornography should be allowed on the Internet as long as it is within legal bounds that are already established. I personally do not sit up all night trying to see some naked body in a freaky position. Nevertheless, I do not have a problem if my neighbor looks at pornographic material all day long as long as he does not pressure me with it. You never know where an online neighbor is from. The Internet is neither owned or ran by the

Nature vs. Nurture Controversy

2000-03-06T13:00:00-05:00
There is a big controversy between whether inherited genes or the environment influences and effects our personality, development, behavior, intelligence and ability. This controversy is most often recognized as the nature verses nurture conflict. Some people believe that it is strictly genes that effect our ways of life, others believe that it is the environment that effects us, and some believe that both of these influence us. Either way, social scientists have been struggling for centuries deciding whether our personalities are born or made. Tests are done often on identical twins that were separated to see how they are influenced. In the past twenty years, it has been discovered that there is a genetic component to about every human trait and behavior. However, genetic influence on traits and behavior is partial because genetics account on average for half of the variation of most traits. Urie Bronfrenbrenner, who studies genetics, said, "It is not nature vs. nurture, but the interaction of nature and nurture that drives development." Researchers are finding that the balance between genetic and environmental influences for certain traits change as people get older. Also, people may react to us in a certain way because of a genetically influenced personality and, we may choose certain experiences because they fit best with our instinctive preferences. This means that our experiences may be influenced by our genetic tendencies. One way researchers study the development of traits and behaviors is by measuring the influence of genetics through out ones life span, and it is found to be that the genetic influence on certain trait increase as people age. A research was done to see whether a trait would show up in a child if it was environmentally influenced or genetically influenced. A child was given more negative attention than another was, and it increased the chances of the child having depressive symptoms and anti-social behavior. But these symptoms disappeared when accounted for genetic influences and how parents treat their children. There are three types of gene/environment relations. The first one is called a passive correlation. It is to be explained as, for example, if a musical ability was genetic, and a child was passed a musical ability trait, than the child would most likely have musically inclined parents. Their parents then would provide them with the genes and environment to promote the development of that ability. The second one is called evocative.

Tornadoes

2000-03-03T13:00:00-05:00
A tornado is a violently rotating column of air that extends from a thunderstorm cloud to the earth’s surface. They are sometimes nicknamed twisters because of their shape and because of what they do. The winds in the tornadoes are usually 100mph or less. In +F4's they can exceed 250mph. They usually stay on a track of a few miles or less and are less than 100 yds. wide. For the development of tornadoes there are a few conditions required. An abundant low-level of moisture and unstable atmosphere is required not only for the tornado, but for a thunderstorm also. A “trigger”, which is a cold front or low level zone of converging winds, is needed to lift the moisture and the air. When the air rises , it becomes saturated and continue to rise higher and higher. They then form in areas where winds at all levels of the atmosphere are strong and turn clockwise with height.Some tornadoes appear as a funnel shape and some have a churning smoky look . Some contain multiple vortices , which are small individual tornadoes rotating around a common center. Some can be invisible , with only swirling dust or debris at ground level as the only indication of the tornado’s presence. Tornadoes can occur at any time of the year, and anywhere in the world. The unique geography of the US is what helps us produce some of the most violent tornadoes because of the favorable condition’s for their development . The months with the greatest amount of tornadoes are April, May and June . Tornado seasons vary in different parts of the US. In the Southeast the peak season is February through April. In the northern plains it is June through August. Tornado frequency is high in the South during late winter and in the Plains, mid-west, and Ohio Valley it is high during early spring through summer. They can occur at any time of day but are more likely to occur 2-7pm. The most tornadoes occur at around 5pm. In Tornado Alley, very few tornadoes occur in the morning . In the southeast , most of the tornadoes occur during the night and early morning hours. Most tornadoes form in conjunction with thunderstorms. Forecasters therefore have to determine which areas are most at risk with severe thunderstorms. It is very difficult to tell the difference between a severe thunderstorm with

Metabolism: Effect of Temperature on edno and ectotherms

2000-03-01T13:00:00-05:00
Animal metabolism consists of the utilization of nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract and their catabolism as fuel for energy or their conversion into substances of the body. Metabolism is a continuous process because the molecules and even most cells of the body have brief lifetimes and are constantly replaced, while tissue as a whole maintains its characteristic structure. This constant rebuilding process without a net change in the amount of a cell constituent is known as dynamic equilibrium (Grolier1996). In the combustion of food, oxygen is used and carbon dioxide is given off. The rate of oxygen consumption indicates the energy expenditure of an organism, or its metabolic rate (Grolier1996). Metabolic rate is directly linked to the core temperature in an animal. An ectotherm, or cold blooded animal, warms its body mainly by absorbing heat from its surroundings. The amount of heat it derives from its metabolism is negligible. In contrast, endotherms derive most or all of its body heat from its own metabolism (Campbells,p899). Because ectotherms do not produce their own heat, they cannot actively ensure their ideal temperature for an ideal metabolic rate (aquacult.htp). In the following experiment, we will attempt to examine the relationship between metabolic rate and environmental temperature in both an ectoderm and an endotherm. I predict that for the ectotherm, the metabolic rate will increase as the outside environment temperature will increase. I also predict that the metabolic rate in the endotherm will remain relatively the same as the outside environment temperature changes. I also make the prediction that the ectotherm will have much lower metabolic rates than the endotherm. The procedures for this experiment are those that are referred to in Duncan and Townsend, 1996 p9-7. In our experiment however, each student group chose a temperature of either 5 C, 10 C, 15 C, or 20 C. Each group selected a crayfish, and placed it in an erlenmeyer flask filled with distilled water. The flask’s O2 levels had already been measured. the flask was then placed in a water bath of the selected temperature for thirty minutes, and then the O2 levels were measured again. Each group shared their findings with the class. The metabolic rates of the mouse were conducted by the instructor and distributed. We also did not use the Winkler method to measure the O2 levels. We used a measuring device instead. The results of this experiment are shown in the

Chromium Supplementation

2000-02-29T13:00:00-05:00
One of the most controversial supplements on the market is chromium. In the body, its natural functions consist of potentiating the activity of insulin and influencing lipid and protein metabolism. It may also be involved in the formation of glycogen in muscle tissue and facilitate the transport of amino acids to the muscles. Chromium can also affect cholesterol metabolism (Williams, 262). There are different claims to this mineral’s benefits, but the most common ones are muscle building, and fat burning. Although it is a big seller in the industry, does it really work? The main users of chromium at one point were body builders. chromium was marketed at first with the promise of building more muscle mass. Unfortunately, it failed to produce results as a muscle builder, and then was introduced as a fat burner. Those who were dieting and some long distance runners interested in holding low weights began to use the supplement and still do today. Although it is advertised as a fat burner, an article in a 1995 issue of the Journal of Sports Medicine and Fitness described an experiment that proved otherwise. A double blind study was conducted among healthy Navy personnel (79 men, 16 women). Participants took one capsule of either chromium picolinate or a placebo per day during a 16-week experiment. Subjects met for a minimum of 3 times/week for 30 minutes of aerobic exercise. The chromium group failed to show any greater reduction in body fat, or gains in muscle mass than that of the placebo group. Therefore, the results showed chromium supplements to be “ineffective in enhancing body fat reduction” (Trent, Linda K., 273). Trent’s experiment was not the only one to prove Chromium’s inadequacies. In 1993, Melissa A. Hallmark et al proved Chromium to be a useless supplement that was only excreted when ingested in excess. In Hallmark’s experiment, sixteen untrained males (23 years old +/- 4) were studied to examine the effects of Chromium supplementation when used during a 12-week training schedule of resistance exercise. The men trained 3 times/week and food records were kept. The results showed that there was no significant difference in muscle gain or weight loss between the placebo group and those who ingested chromium with their diets other than the amount of Chromium excreted. Lacking results have proven chromium as a fat burner to be yet another wait loss quackery Dr. John Vincent at the University of Alabama

Technology - Good or Bad?

2000-02-29T13:00:00-05:00
People very often debate whether technology is good or bad. Many people believe that technology can only cause harm to their lives and society, while many others strongly defend the technologies which have made their lives much more leisurely and enriching than it could have been several hundred years ago. In my opinion, both of these views are correct to an extent, but I also believe that what should be examined is not whether technology in its self is good or bad, but rather how we as humans use it. For decades now, television has been accused of contributing to the dissolution of the American family and the destruction of the minds of those who watch it. However, although the TV has been involved in this, the problem roots not with technology but rather the people who choose to let it run their lives. I believe this because it is parents, not TV sets, who choose to let their children sit in front of the television for hours upon hours, and it is the parents who do not intervene and replace TV time with quality family time. Technology has also been blamed for destroying the minds of adults who spend too much time watching it, but in fact, the blame should lie on what programs a person watches or the person who chooses to watch it continuously. Hence, the television is only a contributing factor in family problems and mind destruction. It is the bad judgment of the people who watch television or let their children watch it who should be blamed for these harms, not technology. Another topic that comes to mind when technology is discussed is the household appliances that have evolved in the last century. Refrigerators, gas and electric ovens, microwaves, vacuums, dishwashers....the list goes on and on. All these things have made housework tremendously easier than it would have been about 100 years ago. This results with both positive and negative effects. It has given us easier ways to get jobs done, leaving more time for other things, but the bad part of this is what is chosen to do in this extra time. In many cases, this extra time is spent doing leisurely things, which might make us more happy, but also has an effect on our health. Lately we have become aware of the dangers of heart disease and the health benefits of exercise....the exercise we

Critical Thinking Vs. Systematic Thinking

2000-02-27T13:00:00-05:00
The first and fundamental step in the creative process is to have a clear notion of what the problem is and to be able to state it clearly. The effective thinker begins by first focusing on the structure of the problem, rather than its technical detail. Also brought into working memory from creative operations are the potential solutions. These come from each person's permanent memory store, his or her lifetime database of knowledge and experience. Other potential alternatives are brought in from such external sources of input as reading, ideas from colleagues, data-bases, and other sources. The articles, "The

Heart Attacks

2000-02-22T13:00:00-05:00
A heart attack occurs when the blood supply to a portion of the heart muscle is severely reduced or stopped. This happens when one of the arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle is blocked by an obstruction. This blockage can be due to a condition called atherosclerosis (a build up of fatty like substance along the wall of the artery), a blood clot or a coronary vessel spasm along with a total obstruction. If the blood supply to a portion of the heart stops, that area of the heart will no longer receive the oxygen or nutrients needed to carry out its function and will die. If it is a very small part of the heart involved, it will be able to work without it. If a large portion is damaged, irreversible damage will happen which can lead to death. Damage to the heart muscle may be so severe that it may cause abnormal heart rhythm, called arrhythmias. Most people who are of a myocardial infraction or a heart attack do so within a few hours due to a type of arrhythmia The heart attack victim will complain of pressure, discomfort or a squeezing sensation in the centre of the chest. There may be pain radiating to the arms or the neck. There may also be shortness of breath, weakness, fatigue, nausea, vomiting and or indigestion. The pain that occurs is the result of heart tissue ischemia (decreased blood supply). The area that is not receiving enough blood is literally crying out for help. When a person complains of any of the symptoms mentioned, they should be transported to the nearest hospital. The diagnosis of an M.I. is made for the patient's history, from special tests on E.C.G. and measurement of certain enzymes released into the bloodstream from damaged heart muscle. Once an M.I. has occurred and a portion of the heart muscle has died, something has to be done to prevent a piece of the obstruction from breaking off and blocking another artery somewhere else in the body. There are four main techniques to prevent this. Drugs may be given to breakdown a blood clot. The obstruction can be cleared by pushing the plaque towards the wall of the artery by inflating a balloon inside the artery (balloon angioplasty). The obstruction can be loosened up by brushing it and suctioning it out of the artery, this is called atheroectomy.

The Internet: its effects and its future

2000-01-31T13:00:00-05:00
Internet, its effects in our lives and the future of the Internet: The Internet is, quite literally, a network of networks. It is comprised of ten thousands of interconnected networks spanning the globe. The computers that form the Internet range from huge mainframes in research establishments to modest PCs in people's homes and offices. Despite the recent hype, the Internet is not a new phenomenon. Its roots lie in a collection of computers that were linked together in the 1970s to form the US Department of Defense's communications systems. Fearing the consequences of nuclear attack, there was no central computer holding vast amounts of data, rather the information was dispersed across thousands of machines. A set of rules, of protocols, known as TCP/IP was developed to allow disparate devices to work together. The original network has long since been upgraded and expanded and TCP/IP is now a "de facto" standard. Millions of people worldwide are using the Internet to share information, make new associations and communicate. Individuals and businesses, from students and journalists, to consultants, programmers and corporate giants are all harnessing the power of the Internet. For many businesses the Internet is becoming integral to their operations. Imagine the ability to send and receive data: messages, notes, letters, documents, pictures, video, sound- just about any form of communication, as effortlessly as making a phone call. It is easy to understand why the Internet is rapidly becoming the corporate communications medium. Using the mouse on your computer, the familiar point-and-click functionality gives you access to electronic mail for sending and receiving data, and file transfer for copying files from one computer to another. Telnet services allow you to establish connections with systems on the other side of the world as if they were just next door. This flood of information is a beautiful thing and it can only open the minds of society. With the explosion of the World Wide Web, anyone could publish his or her ideas to the world. Before, in order to be heard one would have to go through publishers who were willing to invest in his ideas to get something put into print. With the advent of the Internet, anyone who has something to say can be heard by the world. By letting everyone speak their mind, this opens up all new ways of thinking to anyone who is willing to listen. Moreover, the Internet is

Submarines

2000-01-30T13:00:00-05:00
Wouldn’t it be fun to ride a torpedo, or drive a nuclear reactor around underwater? In this research paper I am going to illustrate the ingenius submarine. The submarine is one of the most important strategic and tactical weapons systems of the 20th Century, and this importance will increase in the 21st Century. The tiny, leaking, creaking, and unsafe submarine boats of the 1890’s, displacing under two hundred tons and carrying a handful of men and a few torpedoes have grown into massive, sophisticated and deadly weapons systems. These displacing as much as 26,000 tons, carrying a crew of over a hundred and armed with missiles which can destroy large areas of the world. Every day hundreds of submarines are patrolling the oceans of the world. Many of them are on routine training, but some are armed with strategic missiles and for them every patrol is as fully functional as if they were at war. The surface of the ocean is hostile enough on occasion, but the depths are always hostile to man. Yet, for many centuries man has dreamed of penetrating the depths of the oceans and now this dream has become possible. A submarine is a ship that travels underwater. Most submarines are designed for use in war - to attack enemy ships or to fire missiles at enemy countries. These submarines range in length from about 200 feet to more than 550 feet. Their rounded hulls are about 30 feet in diameter. More than 150 crew members can live and work aboard such warships. At war a submarines will attack from beneath the surface of the water. A submarine needs to remain underwater to be effective. Early submarines did not stay submerged for long periods, because they had to surface often to get air for their engines and crews. Today’s nuclear submarines can stay underwater for several months at a time. A submarines long, cigar shaped body enables it to move swiftly while underwater. A pressure hull, made of high strength steel or titanium surrounds the ship and prevents it from being crushed by the pressure of the water around it. Built into the bow and stern of the pressure hull are tanks that, when filled with water, give the submarine ballast (weight) for diving. Submarines that are not built in the United States usually have a second, outer hull. The space between the hulls is used to

Multiple Sclerosis

2000-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The name itself is revealing: multiple, more than one, and sclerosis, which refers to areas of sclerotic (scarred) tissue. Multiple sclerosis is a demyelinating disease of the white matter of the central nervous system. These areas of sclerosis, also referred to as lesions or plaques, occur in the white matter of the central nervous system. Gray matter consists primarily of nerve cells. Axons (nerve fibers) are the connections between the cell body and the muscles, sensory organs, and primary organs such as the heart. These nerve cells are the communication system both within the central nervous system and between it and the rest of the body. Axons are sheathed in myelin, a white substance (hence the term "white matter") that insulates them and speeds transmission of impulses along the cell fibers. Electrical impulses move along the nerve fiber to the synapse (the connection point between cells) to the next nerve cell. The lesions or plaques of multiple sclerosis are areas of tissue damage arising from inflammation, which occurs when white blood cells and fluid accumulate around blood vessels. This inflammation causes destruction of myelin. After the fragments are cleared away, a scar is formed--the lesion--in the area of demyelinization. The cause-and-effect process of inflammation and demyelinization is unclear. These lesions impede conduction of signals by blocking or slowing communication, either completely or partially and from time to time. The process can be thought of as similar to an electrical short circuit. The symptoms of multiple sclerosis result from that loss or diminution of signal conduction. MS is the most common demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. In the United States alone, there are at least 250,000 cases. For reasons that remain unclear, it is more prevalent in northern temperate zones and affects noticeably more women than men. The average age of onset is thirty years. Research into the underlying causes and processes of MS is ongoing, and in recent years, advances in virology and immunology have rapidly increased knowledge and understanding of the disease. However, its etiology remains unclear. Epidemiological studies indicate that an environmental factor, perhaps exposure to a virus, when combined with a genetic predisposition to the disease, may well control occurrence of the disease. MS is not a genetically transmitted disease. MS may also be or involve a defect of some kind in the body's autoimmune system--some part of the body may, in effect, attack itself. Diagnosis of MS is difficult.

Destroying the Delicate Balance Crucial to Survival

2000-01-16T13:00:00-05:00
Is mankind destroying the delicate balance between humanity and nature and endangering survival of all species? Throughout history we have been forced to adapt by perfecting ourselves socially, technologically, and physically to ensure continued existence. In the struggle for survival there is a delicate balance between nature and humanity crucial to all species. We are slowly shifting this balance in order to control nature. In doing so we are putting the well being of all species at risk. Nature is a dynamic presence that demands balance. It has a harmonious arrangement that sets up and maintains a state of equilibrium . Nature is generally thought of as the physical world and its living organisms. Some say it is inexhaustible and expendable, some that we can use but must replace, and others that we can look but not touch. Although opinion on nature's definition varies widely, the majority of people concur that we are part of nature and thus depend upon it. According to the Christian religion, Nature displays the character of God, in its goodness and strength, consistency and concern to sustain human life (Job 12:17-9). It also states that man is created from the dust of the ground (Gen 2:7). If Man is made from nature and we tamper with it, we are tampering with ourselves. Therefore if we modify the world around us then it will modify us. Scientists are currently modifying nature by genetically altering a variety of species with the use of a relatively new process called genetic engineering in the field of biotechnology. Genetic manipulation is the transport of one or more genes from one species to another in order to give an organism new characteristics. The purpose is to create species that are more productive and resistant to disease. Some people believe this new technology can be beneficial to mankind by curing disease, improving health, benefiting agriculture, and reducing world hunger. Their argument is that in order to survive we must eat healthier, hardier foods and combat diseases with the techniques available to us. It is survival of the fittest. At the same time, we have to recognize that the use of new technology in other fields has caused more problems than that which it has solved. There has been damage to the environment: a hole put in the ozone layer, polluted water and the killing of many species. Before we advance and start using genetic engineering,

The Male Sexual Anatomy

2000-01-09T13:00:00-05:00
In Greek art, the male human nude was used as a canon of human perfection. The sensuous male form in motion was considered the crowning achievement of Greek sculpture. Its asymmetrical balance, this motion while at rest, and the resulting harmony of opposites is the essence of male beauty. The following will discuss the male sexual anatomy, physiology, and overall sexual health. In examining the male sexual body, the anatomy encompasses both the external and the internal sex organs. The external sex organs consist of the penis and the scrotum. The internal sex organs consist of the testes, genital ducts, and the fluid producing glands. The systems of internal and external organs that are the male genitals are also referred to as the urogenital system. The penis is the male organ that is responsible for the transmission of urine and semen from the body. It is an expanding flexible rod which, splits into an Y and is attached to the underside of the pubic bone. It consists of fibrous tissue, nerves, blood vessels, and three cylinders of erectile tissue. This tissue soaks up blood and expands when the brain signals certain arteries to begin pumping blood through, which produces an erection. The purpose of an erection in the reproductive process is to allow the penis to become firm enough to enter a vagina. The scrotum is a loose sac of skin, fascia, and smooth muscle that encloses and supports the testes outside the body at an optimum temperature for the production of sperm. The scrotum is divided into two parts with each containing a testis. The testes produce sperm and the sex hormone testosterone. "In most men the left testis hangs somewhat lower than the right one, although the opposite may sometimes occur." (Byer 153) The epididymis is a coiled tube about 20ft long, which runs along the posterior side of the testis. It stores sperm and can retain them for up to six weeks, during which time the sperm become mature. The viability of the sperm in the testes is dependent upon the relative lower temperature of the testes in comparision to the body temperature. When the environmental temperature is low the testes move closer to the body by way of the spermatic cord and relaxes when the temperature is too high and moves away from the body. The spermatic cord is covered with skeletal muscle and it suspends the testes

Bipolar Disorder

2000-01-08T13:00:00-05:00
The phenomenon of bipolar affective disorder has been a mystery since the 16th century. History has shown that this affliction can appear in almost anyone. Even the great painter Vincent Van Gogh is believed to have had bipolar disorder. It is clear that in our society many people live with bipolar disorder; however, despite the abundance of people suffering from the it, we are still waiting for definite explanations for the causes and cure. The one fact of which we are painfully aware is that bipolar disorder severely undermines its’ victims ability to obtain and maintain social and occupational success. Because bipolar disorder has such debilitating symptoms, it is imperative that we remain vigilant in the quest for explanations of its causes and treatment. Affective disorders are characterized by a smorgasbord of symptoms that can be broken into manic and depressive episodes. The depressive episodes are characterized by intense feelings of sadness and despair that can become feelings of hopelessness and helplessness. Some of the symptoms of a depressive episode include anhedonia, disturbances in sleep and appetite, psycomoter retardation, loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, guilt, difficulty thinking, indecision, and recurrent thoughts of death and suicide (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). The manic episodes are characterized by elevated or irritable mood, increased energy, decreased need for sleep, poor judgment and insight, and often reckless or irresponsible behavior (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). Bipolar affective disorder affects approximately one percent of the population (approximately three million people) in the United States. It is presented by both males and females. Bipolar disorder involves episodes of mania and depression. These episodes may alternate with profound depressions characterized by a pervasive sadness, almost inability to move, hopelessness, and disturbances in appetite, sleep, in concentrations and driving. Bipolar disorder is diagnosed if an episode of mania occurs whether depression has been diagnosed or not (Goodwin, Guze, 1989, p 11). Most commonly, individuals with manic episodes experience a period of depression. Symptoms include elated, expansive, or irritable mood, hyperactivity, pressure of speech, flight of ideas, inflated self esteem, decreased need for sleep, distractibility, and excessive involvement in reckless activities (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). Rarest symptoms were periods of loss of all interest and retardation or agitation (Weisman, 1991). As the National Depressive and Manic Depressive Association (MDMDA) has demonstrated, bipolar disorder can create substantial developmental delays, marital and family disruptions, occupational setbacks, and financial disasters. This devastating disease causes disruptions of

Cystic Fibrosis

1999-12-30T13:00:00-05:00
About 1 out of 201 Caucasian people carries at least one of the fatal defective genes that cause cystic fibrosis, CF, or mucoviscidosis (in Europe) although carriers don't show any signs of the disease. Therefore, 10 million2 people carry the defective gene and aren't aware of it. Consequently, it makes it one of the most common genetic defect in the United States. CF is a autosomal recessive gene. That means that it may, but doesn't always skip generations. In order to get this disease, both parents must be carriers. If one parent has CF and the other one is not a carrier than there is a 100% chance that their child will be a carrier. If one parent has CF and the other is a carrier than the child has a 50% chance of having CF and a 50% chance of just being a carrier. If both parents are carriers than their child will have a 25% of having CF, a 50% chance of being a carrier and a 25% chance of not being affected. CF is common in both males and females, there is not a specific sex that it is more common in. How does a person know if they have CF? There are many symptoms to this deadly disease including: salty tasting skin, constant coughing, large amounts of mucus, trouble gaining weight, frequent greasy, foul smelling bowel, growths in the nose (nasal polyps) and clubbed or enlarged fingertips and toe tips is another symptom. Now there are many tests that can be done to find put if a person has CF. One way which CF can be detected is to observe the symptoms. A person doesn't need to have all the symptoms in order to have cystic fibrosis, but they usually show most of them. Another way are different genetic testing. Doctors can now do genetic testing for CF, but about 10 years ago they couldn't. In 1989, the location where the of the defective gene on chromosome number 7 is was discovered by Francis S. Collins from University of Michigan. Tests can now be taken to see if an unborn child is infected with CF such tests are amniocentesis, chronic villus biopsy3 and a removal of cells from the embryo during invitro. Many years ago, New York4 had a heat wave,

Sleep Apnea

1999-12-13T13:00:00-05:00
Sleep apnea is a common sleeping disorder where a person has experiences of not breathing during sleep. Over 20 million Americans, mostly overweight men, suffer from sleep apnea. Despite these numbers, sleep apnea is often not treated directly because its symptoms are thought to be those of depression, stress, or just loud snoring. There may be a genetic component to this disorder as it often occurs within families. People with sleep apnea stop breathing for at least 10 seconds at a time; these short stops in breathing can happen up to 400 times every night. The Greek word "apnea" literally means "without breath". There are three types of apnea: obstructive, central, and mixed. Obstructive sleep apnea is the most common type. Nine out of 10 patients with sleep apnea have this kind of apnea. If you have this type, something is blocking the passage or windpipe, called the trachea, that brings air into your body. Your windpipe might be blocked by your tongue, tonsils, or uvula. It might also be blocked by a large amount of fatty tissue in the throat or even by relaxed throat muscles. Central sleep apnea is rare. This type is called central because it is related to the function of the central nervous system. If you have this type of apnea, the muscles you use in breathing don't get the "go ahead" signal from your brain. Either the brain doesn't send the signal, or the signal gets interrrupted. Mixed sleep apnea, as the name implies, is a combination of the two. So, what are the signs? One example is when a person sleeps, they have a very pronounced snore-- more like a loud and sudden snort. This "gasp for air" is literally a life saver when the mouth and throat muscles tense up to allow air back into the body. Most sleepers are unaware of this occurrence, although it often shakes their bed partners, roommates, and even neighbors to the core. Another sign is when a person falls asleep at inappropriate times like work, driving, sitting in a chair, or in front of a television. It can also be a sign of sleep apnea if a person frequently has morning headaches, memory difficulties, low energy levels, agitation, shortness of breath, or leg swelling. These are the main symptoms seen when

Nuclear War: Why we Need our Nukes

1999-12-10T13:00:00-05:00
Nuclear War: Why we Need our Nukes After much research and discussion I have decided to bring up the constant and ever rising conflict of nuclear warfare and why we need to keep our nuclear weapons. I believe very strongly that we need to keep, test, and build nuclear weapons, people will say that we need to keep a peaceful world and ban all nuclear weapons. The people that talk like that are simply ignorant; because if there is ever any kind of nuclear war or any type of superior threat that needs to be dealt with strongly and promptly nuclear force is most likely going to be the most tactical and reasonable choice. If all the test ban treaties ever written were to come into effect our nation would be in serious danger. Due to the simple fact that everybody else would advance in the world of nuclear technology why we are over here sitting on our sorry asses trying to make the world a better place for plants, animals, and ourselves. I believe either our nation is incredibly ignorant or they are not telling the public everything the amendment grants to us. I strongly believe that if we knew everything that was going on in the world of nuclear warfare, the opinions of very many people would change. Right now as we speak Russia, China, Pakistan and many other countries have access to nuclear weapon's which makes them a threat! So why they develop new ways to nuke us, we are fighting with the people about weather or not we should waste tax dollars on a project that could some day save the lives of the United States. You can't forget that nuclear weapons are not used so much as a weapon but as a deterrent. What I am saying by that is, instead of finishing a war with nukes, we could prevent the war all together by using the nukes as a scary little tactic to keep them at bay. This will never be a nuclear free world, you can't dismiss the ever growing world of technology, there will always be the threat of nuclear war, and if its not nukes it will be something more advanced and more dangerous. I just don't understand the big deal! Whoops, hit the wrong button. I really don't care much about the people, or the particular arguments involved on

Plutonium

1999-12-03T13:00:00-05:00
An American Chemist named Glenn T. Seaborg discovered plutonium in 1941 at Berkeley University in California. The discovery of Plutonium was not announced until 1946 because America was at war with Japan and Germany. Plutonium was named after the planet Pluto, after the planet Neptune in the solar system and Neptune gave its name to Neptunium. Plutonium is a silvery metal that turns yellow when exposed to air. It is warm to the touch due to the releasing radioactive energy from it. The atomic number of Plutonium is 94.

Nickel

1999-12-01T13:00:00-05:00
Nickel is one of the most important elements on the periodic table. It has plenty of history, as well as a huge importance to society. Its has unique chemical, physical, and geological properties. Nickel is used commercially in abundance, as it is used anywhere from simple art products such as ceramics to complex structures such as tubing for desalination plants. It is even used in the American five-cent coin, the "nickel". Nickel was discovered by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, in Sweden, during the year 1751. Mr. Cronstedt discovered nickel in a mineral called niccolite. He originally planned to extract copper from this new mineral but got none at all. This is why nickel, at first, was called "false copper". Instead, Cronstedt got a silvery-white metal, which was eventually used for other things. The origin of the name "nickel" is a derivative from the German word "kupfernickel", meaning "Devil's Copper" or "St. Nicholas's Copper". The chemical properties of nickel are as follows: Nickel has the atomic number of twenty-eight. The atomic symbol of nickel, "Ni". It has the atomic weight (mass) of 58.70, to be exact, 58.693. It occurs in five stable isotopes. Physically, nickel is a lustrous silvery-white and takes on a hard polish. It is a hard metal, malleable, ductile, and slightly ferromagnetic. Its melting point is at 2651 degrees F, and its boiling point is at 5275 degrees F. Also, nickel is a fairly good conductor of heat and electricity. Nickel belongs in the iron-cobalt group of metals and is chiefly valuable for the metallic alloys it forms. Biologically, nickel is a trace element for many species, including the human species. A human body contains 0.0000454 grams of nickel for every one pound. Nickel is not found in too many places around the world. It is found mainly, and obtained commercially from pentlandite and pyrrhotite, in the Dudbury region of Ontario, Canada. The Dudbury region of Ontario produces roughly thirty percent of all the nickel used in the free world. Other nickel deposits are also found in New Caledonia, Australia, Cuba, Indonesia, and in small doses, various parts around the world. Nickel occurs naturally in the places listed above, as well as in most meteorites that fall to the earth. Nickel is used as one of the most important criteria for distinguishing a meteorite, or remnants of one, from other minerals in the earth. Meteorites and siderites may contain a minimum

Psychlogy of Fashion

1999-11-30T13:00:00-05:00
It has been said that individuals act out the roles that are associated with their identities and positions in society. This statement clearly relates to the case studies provided in the assignment package. It states that we have to look the part to play the part. This is an ingenious statement because what we look like is often controlled by society and it's positions we take. An example would be the career positions that we usually desire to occupy. If we do not own businesses, we tend to want to work for large companies. Such companies, admired by us, are usually image-controlled. Disney employs 32000 people on Orlando and it operates the most obsessive image-control program outside of military. Companies, including Disney want their employees to have proper appearance management in order to look successful. Conservative attire such as Traditional Business Wear is perceived as the most successful look for an individual. The companies want individuals to act the role of successful employee to display the success and professionalism of the company. For the reason that we perceive ones who are not playing roles that are associated with their positions in society as being improper and unsafe, we tend not to trust them and be very careful by managing what we do or say around such persons. If an employee is perceived in such a way, the result of the customers' responses will be anything but positive, and the retailer will feel the impact caused by negative feedback towards the employee. To succeed in today's society most people have to work, and seeking employment is not an easy task, especially if an individual has set high goals for him/her self, but does not know how to manage own appearance and the message becomes unfocused. Since wrong first impressions are irreversible, an individual's knowledge, attitude, character, etc, will not be attention worthy, and therefore, the desired employment will be given to someone with a better wardrobe and personal appearance management. Outcome for that would be that the employers cast by appearance rather then hire. The reason for the employers to enforce the image-control programs now becomes clearly understandable. A good example taken from the second article of the assignment package would be a woman dressed in masculine attire. We stereotype that woman as someone attracted to the same sex, or a tough woman who can stand up for her self in almost

JavaScript

1999-11-30T13:00:00-05:00
Within this report is information on how JavaScript is used on the Internet. This report will contain information that will help you learn about JavaScript and its uses on the Internet. It mentions what JavaScript is, where it originated and what some of its uses are. JavaScript is a loosely typed scripting language that resembles the programming language C. It is designed to be an extension to HTML and is usually included within HTML scripts. JavaScript is object-oriented and has block-structuring features. The main feature of JavaScript is that it lets you build interactive web pages. JavaScript allows you to respond to a user's input in the form of text, buttons selected, or mouse clicks, and can generate a response to the user's computer. JavaScript originated from within the labs of Netscape Communications Corporation in 1994. It was invented so a computing language could build web pages and applications more effectively. When it first appeared it was thought that it was a new form of C, but later turned out to be this wonderful new language called JavaScript. There were skeptics that said the language was a dud and would never catch on, but now more people are learning JavaScript then ever before. JavaScript is used within HTML tags so that the page setup in already present when the JavaScript starts to run. There are many different uses for JavaScript on the Net. It can be used to make mail forms that a customer or person trying to input information can use. The program will allow the user to input information, then it will automatically send that info to a designated email address with the click of a button. It can also be used to put a password on a certain web page; a user trying to enter the page must then input the correct commands and passwords to enter the page. Another command added to this code will make it so that if the user enters the wrong password the code will send them to a site of the scripts designers choice. JavaScript is also a popular language for making simple interactive games like bridge and peg games. These codes can provide hours of fun! JavaScript is used mainly on pages that need to allow users to enter information or choose from options on the page. One section of the Net that relies heavily on JavaScript is E-Commerce. JavaScript is

V-Chip

1999-11-29T13:00:00-05:00
What is a V-chip? This term has become a buzz word for any discussion evolving telecommunications regulation and television ratings, but not too many reports define the new technology in its fullest form. A basic definition of the V-chip; is a microprocessor that can decipher information sent in the vertical blanking of the NTSC signal, purposefully for the control of violent or controversial subject matter. Yet, the span of the new chip is much greater than any working definition can encompass. A discussion of the V-chip must include a consideration of the technical and ethical issues, in addition to examining the constitutionally of any law that might concern standards set by the US government. Yet in the space provided for this essay, the focus will be the technical aspects and costs of the new chip. It is impossible to generally assume that the V-chip will solve the violence problem of broadcast television or that adding this little device to every set will be a first amendment infringement. We can, however, find clues through examining the cold facts of broadcast television and the impact of a mandatory regulation on that free broadcast. "Utilizing the EIA's Recommended Practice for Line 21 Data Service(EIA-608) specification, these chips decode EDS (Extended Data Services)program ratings, compare these ratings to viewer standards, and can be programmed to take a variety of actions, including complete blanking of programs." Is one definition of the V-chip from Al Marquis of Zilog Technology. The FCC or Capitol Hill has not set any standards for V-chip technology; this has allowed many different companies to construct chips that are similar yet not exact or possibly not compatible. Each chip has advantages and disadvantages for the rating's system, soon to be developed. For example, some units use onscreen programming such as VCR's and the Zilog product do, while others are considering set top options. Also, different companies are using different methods of parental control over the chip. Another problem that these new devices may incur when included in every television is a space. The NTSC signal includes extra information space known as the subcarrier and Vertical blanking interval. As explained in the quotation from Mr. Marquis, the V-chips will use a certain section of this space to send simple rating numbers and points that will be compared to the personality settings in the chip. Many new technologies are being developed for smart-TV or

Alternative Fuels

1999-11-28T13:00:00-05:00
Alternative Fuel Vehicles You Can Buy Today From the earliest days of the automotive industry alternative fuels have always competed with petroleum for powering vehicles. Nicholas Cugnot made the first self-powered road vehicle in 1769 with a steam engine, and the first gasoline automobile didn't appear until over 100 years later from Karl Benz. Through the late 19th and early 20th century steam and electric power remained strong contenders. The invention of the self-starter for gasoline engines by Cadillac eventually proved the undoing of the early steam cars, which required warming up. Electric cars continued to be produced for a while longer, but the expanding road network gradually made their short range of 8-15 miles between charges too inconvenient for many uses. Today we understand that the wholesale burning of petroleum can't continue forever. As the new century opens alternative fuel vehicles are becoming more and more common. Major manufacturers such as Ford, Daimler/Chrysler, and Fiat offer dual fuel cars and trucks now. These vehicles allow you to choose between gasoline and compressed natural gas (CNG) for cleaner emissions. Other large manufacturers such as General Motors, Toyota, and Honda are concentrating on electric vehicles. These global automakers are slowly moving from conventional to alternative power as the technology is developed and refined. Current battery technology allows a maximum range of about 125 miles per charge. The leading edge of electric vehicle technology is occupied by much smaller companies. Bombardier, Pivco AS, and S-LEM AG have designed small, lightweight city cars intended for daily use in dense urban environments. Corbin-Pacific and Zebra Motors have chosen to concentrate on performance. Both companies produce creditable sports cars that just happen to be electrically powered. Do you have an idea that you think will work for an alternatively powered vehicle concept? The U.S. Department of Energy invites small businesses (500 employees or less) to submit grant applications on hybrid electric vehicle technology. Applicants may receive up to $75,000 US for a Phase I grant to develop the feasibility of the idea. Hydrogen Vehicles Fuel Description Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, but is rarely found in its uncombined form on the earth. When combusted (oxidized) it creates only water vapor as a by-product (4H + O2 = 2 H20). When burned in an internal combustion engine, however, combustion also produces small amounts of nitrogen oxides and small amounts of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide because

Cloning

1999-11-27T13:00:00-05:00
Bioethics, which is the study of value judgments pertaining to human conduct in the area of biology and includes those related to the practice of medicine, has been an important aspect of all areas in the scientific field (Bernstein, Maurice, M.D.). It is one of the factors that says whether or not certain scientific research can go on, and if it can, under which rules and regulations it must abide by. One of the most recent and controversial issues facing our society today is the idea of cloning. On February 23, 1997, Ian Wilmut, a Scottish scientist, along with his colleagues at the Roslin Institute and PPL Therapeutics, announced to the world that they had cloned a lamb, which they named Dolly, after Dolly Parton, from an adult sheep (Mario,Christopher). The two share the same nucleic DNA, but differ in terms of their mitochondrial DNA, which is vitally important for the regulation of the cell. The media and the press ignored this fact, and thus claimed that Dolly and her ‘mother’ were genetically identical, which sparked a fury of outcry all around the world. The technique of transferring a nucleus from a somatic cell into an egg cell of which the nucleus had been removed, called nuclear transplantation, is an extension of research that had been ongoing for over 40 years. Up until now, scientists thought that adult cells could not be “reprogrammed” to behave like a fertilized egg and create an embryo, but the evidence obtained by Dolly’s success prove otherwise. The issues of cloning have been around for a long time, starting with the publication of Joshua Lederberg’s 1966 article on cloning in the American Naturalist. The public’s interest has been perked by many sci-fi books, films, and movies including Aldous Huxley’s 1932 novel “Brave New World,” 1973’s “Sleeper,” the 1978 film “The Boys from Brazil”. Most recently, the movie “Multiplicity” dealt with replicating Billy Crystal over and over (Mario, Christopher). The ethical, legal, and moral issues aroused by cloning have been raised by previous projects, and are now simply emerging again, with its focus on three major points: the shift from sexual reproduction with that of asexual replication of existing genes; the ability to predetermine the genes of a child; and the ability to create many genetically identical children (Report/Recommendations of the NBAC). The public responded to Dolly with a mixture of fear and excitement, questioning the benefits

Global Warming

1999-11-20T13:00:00-05:00
What is global warming, and how is it affecting the Earth and its inhabitants? Global Warming is sometimes referred to as the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is the absorption of energy radiated from the Earth's surface by carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere, causing the atmosphere to become warmer. The greenhouse effect is what is causing the temperature on the Earth to rise, and creating many problems that will begin to occur in the coming decades. For the last 10,000 years, the Earth's climate has been extraordinarily beneficial to mankind. "Humans have prospered tremendously well under a benign atmosphere," (Bates 28). Today, however, major changes are taking place. People are conducting an inadvertent global experiment by changing the face of the entire planet. We are destroying the ozone layer, which allows life to exist on the Earth's surface. All of these activities are unfavorably altering the composition of the biosphere and the Earth's heat balance. If we do not slow down our use of fossil fuels and stop destroying, the forests, the world could become hotter than it has been in the past million years. Average global temperatures have risen 1 degree Fahrenheit over the last century. If carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to spill into the atmosphere, global temperatures could rise five to 10 degrees by the middle of the next century. The warning will be the greatest at the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, with the largest temperature rises occurring in winter. Most areas will experience summertime highs well above 100 degrees Fahrenheit. New temperature records will be set each year. As a possible prelude to global warming, the decade of the 1980's has had the six hottest years of the century (Erandson 18-22). Atmospheric disturbances brought on by the additional warming will produce more violent storms and larger death tolls. Some areas, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, will dry out and a greater occurrence of lightning strikes will set massive forest fires. The charring of the Earth by natural and man-made forest fires will dump additional quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Changes in temperature and rainfall brought on by global warming will in turn change the composition of the forests. At the present rate of destruction, most of the rain forests will be gone by the middle of the next century. This will allow man-made deserts to encroach on

Angular Momentum

1999-11-18T13:00:00-05:00
Angular momentum and its properties were devised over time by many of the great minds in physics. Newton and Kepler were probably the two biggest factors in the evolution of angular momentum. Angular momentum is the force which a moving body, following a curved path, has because of its mass and motion. Angular momentum is possessed by rotating objects. Understanding torque is the first step to understanding angular momentum. Torque is the angular "version" of force. The units for torque are in Newton-meters. Torque is observed when a force is exerted on a rigid object pivoted about an axis and. This results in the object rotating around that axis. "The torque ? due to a force F about an origin is an inertial frame defined to be ? ? r x F"1 where r is the vector position of the affected object and F is the force applied to the object. To understand angular momentum easier it is wise to compare it to the less complex linear momentum because they are similar in many ways. "Linear momentum is the product of an object's mass and its instantaneous velocity. The angular momentum of a rotating object is given by the product of its angular velocity and its moment of inertia. Just as a moving object's inertial mass is a measure of its resistance to linear acceleration, a rotating object's moment of inertia is a measure of its resistance to angular acceleration."2 Factors which effect a rotating object's moment of inertia are its mass and on the distribution of the objects mass about the axis of rotation. A small object with a mass concentrated very close to its axis of rotation will have a small moment of inertia and it will be fairly easy to spin it with a certain angular velocity. However if an object of equal mass, with its mass more spread out from the axis of rotation, will have a greater moment of inertia and will be harder to accelerate to the same angular velocity.3 To calculate the moment of inertia of an object one can imagine that the object is divided into many small volume elements, each of mass ?m. "Using the definition (which is taken from a formula in rotational energy) I=?ri2?mi and take the sum as ?m?0 (where I is the moment of inertia and ri is the perpendicular distance of the infinitely small mass' distance from the axis

Animal Communication

1999-11-18T13:00:00-05:00
Throughout this course of study, the concept of language as the demarcation between animals and humans has prevailed. Further, as we have seen in our class readings, many claim that it is through language that our "consciousness" and "cognitive" skills are developed. Accordingly, these skills are necessary for us to interpret and conceptualize our world. What this infers is that because we have these skills and the "brute" animals do not, animals do not possess the ability to analyze or think about their world. When presented in this manner, I was almost convinced that this was a plausible representation of mental development. However, I found that I still had a nagging feeling that it could not be true. Upon further investigation I found that language is by no means the only way to interpret or communicate in the world. The significance of this statement is that if my thesis proves valid the results are twofold: it refutes the behaviorists and Cartesian assertion that language is the boundary that separates animals and humans; and it supports the theory that animals not only have language, but they also posses the ability for cognitive thought. No one will argue that animals possess sight and auditory abilities. However, the concept that animals have language and are capable of thought for some is a bitter pill to swollow. I believe that they are also capable of thought and even intention. Granted, the development of language is often used as a gauge of mental aptitude in humans: "Language competence is intimately tied to, or maybe even definitive of, our concept of human mentality" (Atherton and Schwartz, 137). However, while language is an asset which enables people to conceptualize their world, it is by no means a necessity. This is demonstrated by the ability of physically handicapped persons (e.g., the deaf) and mentally handicapped persons (e.g., victims of cerebral palsy) to communicate using symbols. It is also demonstrated by the reliance on kinesics, body language, in young children. Numerous studies attest to the ability of apes and baboons to communicate using symbols and body language. These studies are the first steps in proving the existence of animal mentation. Griffin argues that many scientists do not accept the notion of animal mentation because of the difficulty of defining abstract concepts such as "consciousness" and "mind" (Griffin 163). In reviewing the works of other scholars, Griffin puts forth some working definitions.

Y2K: Should We Be Worried?

1999-11-18T13:00:00-05:00
Some people wonder what Y2K is, and whether it is true or false. Should we be worried about Y2K? Some people are sure it is false, yet the news stresses that it is true. This has many people in fear for their life. Some have been preparing for over a year now because they think Y2K is going to hit and the power will go out and absolutely nothing will work. Should we believe this? Many people ask, "What is Y2K?". It made me wonder one day, "What does Y2K really mean?". I went to the search engine Altavista and typed in "What does Y2K stand for?". I looked and looked and finally found a page that answered mine and many others' questions. Y2K stands for Year 2000. Why K though? Why not Y2T? It is K because the Greek for thousand is Kilo so we use K to stand for thousand. Then comes another big question. What causes Y2K? There are two different factors in what causes Y2K. One factor being: Along time ago, approximately in the 70's different operating systems were being made for computers. The computer programmers decided to make the dates in these operating systems and programs with 2 digits(73) instead of 4(1973). That was all fine until about the early 90's when computer programmers noticed something. They saw that when the year 2000 rolled around the computers would read the date as 00 instead of 2000. The computer would think, "1900?", but I was made in 1973. This confuses the computer ,therefore, it resets it's self to 1980 and rearranges all of the settings in the BIOS (the programs that tells the computer which drive to load to, what kind of memory, what kind of CD-ROM the computer has, etc.). This could cause a problem, but nothing that could not be fixed in 5 minutes. One downfall to that is every time it got up to 2000 it would need to be fixed again. The upside being a program that reads the date with four digits is approximately ninety dollars depending on the kind of program wanted. The other factor is a computer programming language called COBOL (common business oriented language). This computer programming language is used by many businesses' computers. COBOL handles numbers and text so that businesses can produce reports and keep track of all sorts of data. It has no idea what a

Operating Systems

1999-11-17T13:00:00-05:00
An operating system is the program that manages all the application programs in a computer system. This also includes managing the input and output devices, and assigning system resources. Operating systems evolved as the solution to the problems that were evident in early computer systems, and coincide with the changing computer systems. Three cycles are clear in the evolution of computers, the mainframe computers, minicomputers and microcomputers, and each of these stages influenced the development of operating systems. Now, advances in software and hardware technologies have resulted in an increased demand for more sophisticated and powerful operating systems, with each new generation able to handle and perform more complex tasks. The folowing report examines the development of operating systems, and how the changing tehcnology shaped the evolution of operating systems. First Generation Computers (1945﷓1955) In the mid﷓1940's enormous machines capable of performing numerical calculations were created. The machine consisted of vacuum tubes and plugboards, and programming was done purely in machine code. Programming languages were unheard of during the early part of the period, and each machine was specifically assembled to carry out a particular calculation. These early computers had no need for an operating system and were operated directly from the operator's console by a computer programmer, who had immediate knowledge of the computers design. By the early 1950's punched cards were introduced, allowing programs to be written and read directly from the card, instead of using plugboards. Second Generation Computers (1955﷓1965) In the mid﷓1950's, the transistor was introduced, creating a more reliable computer. Computers were used primarily for scientific and engineering calculations and were programmed mainly in FORTRAN and assembly language. As computers became more reliable they also became more business orientated, although they were still very large and expensive. Because of the expenditure, the productiveness of the system had to be magnified as to ensure cost effectiveness. Job scheduling and the hiring of computer operators, ensured that the computer was used effectively and crucial time was not wasted. Loading the compliers was a time consuming process as each complier was kept on a magnetic tape, which had to be manually mounted. This became a problem particularly when there were multiple jobs to execute written in different languages (mainly in Assembly or Fortran). Each card and tape had to individually be installed, executed then removed for each program. To combat this problem, the Batch System

Teenage Depression

1999-11-16T13:00:00-05:00
Depression is a disease that afflicts the human psyche in such a way that the afflicted tends to act and react abnormally toward others and themselves. Therefore it comes to no surprise to discover that adolescent depression is strongly linked to teen suicide. Adolescent suicide is now responsible for more deaths in youths aged 15 to 19 than cardiovascular disease or cancer (Blackman, 1995). Despite this increased suicide rate, depression in this age group is greatly underdiagnosed and leads to serious difficulties in school, work and personal adjustment, which may often continue into adulthood. Brown (1996) has said the reason why depression is often over looked in children and adolescents is because "children are not always able to express how they feel." Sometimes the symptoms of mood disorders take on different forms in children than in adults. Adolescence is a time of emotional turmoil, mood swings, gloomy thoughts, and heightened sensitivity. It is a time of rebellion and experimentation. Blackman (1996) observed that the "challenge is to identify depressive symptomatology which may be superimposed on the backdrop of a more transient, but expected, developmental storm." Therefore, diagnosis should not lay only in the physician's hands but be associated with parents, teachers and anyone who interacts with the patient on a daily basis. Unlike adult depression, symptoms of youth depression are often masked. Instead of expressing sadness, teenagers may express boredom and irritability, or may choose to engage in risky behaviors (Oster & Montgomery, 1996). Mood disorders are often accompanied by other psychological problems such as anxiety (Oster & Montgomery, 1996), eating disorders (Lasko et al., 1996), hyperactivity (Blackman, 1995), substance abuse (Blackman, 1995; Brown, 1996; Lasko et al., 1996) and suicide (Blackman, 1995; Brown, 1996; Lasko et al., 1996; Oster & Montgomery, 1996) all of which can hide depressive symptoms.The signs of clinical depression include marked changes in mood and associated behaviors that range from sadness, withdrawal, and decreased energy to intense feelings of hopelessness and suicidal thoughts. Depression is often described as "an exaggeration of the duration and intensity of normal mood changes" (Brown 1996). Key indicators of adolescent depression include a drastic change in eating and sleeping patterns, significant loss of interest in previous activity interests (Blackman, 1995; Oster & Montgomery, 1996), constant boredom (Blackman, 1995), disruptive behavior, peer problems, increased irritability and aggression (Brown, 1996). Blackman (1995) proposed that "formal psychologic testing may be helpful in complicated

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy in our Blood Supply

1999-11-16T13:00:00-05:00
The well-being of the blood supply has always been a vital component of human existence. It is common knowledge that the existing blood supply is deficient to the increasing usage of blood and blood products. Ironically, as the topic of blood donation arises in society, fears and doubts as to how sanitary and healthful the blood of blood donors often surface. For instance, there is much criticism over allowing foreign travelers to Great Britain the opportunity to donate their blood. This criticism stems from the belief that the Great Britain endemic of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE or "Mad Cow Disease") can be physiologically related to the lethal Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans. Although there is hardly any scientific evidence that supports this allegation, the United States Department of Agriculture and the FDA have introduced strict restrictions concerning the importation of British cattle products and the blood donation of British travelers. Critics, politicians, and the general public often utilize the conjecture of illegitimate facts and myths to shape their opinions concerning BSE. This is fine and great, but I believe a valid opinion on the subject must be backed by significant facts entailing the clinical epidemiology and history of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy, its relation to other transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE), possible transmission to the human species, the causes of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and any relationships between BSE and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. My opinion, based on the facts, is what I offer to you. Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) Bovine spongiform encephalopathy is a fatal brain disease of cattle. BSE is most common in dairy cattle, but not rare in beef cattle either. Cattle affected by BSE experience a progressive degeneration of the nervous system. Infected animals may show changes in behavior such as nervousness or aggression (hence the term "mad cow disease"), abnormal posture, lack of milk production, anorexia, and excessive licking. All cattle affected with BSE either naturally succumb or are euthanized. BSE is most often found in the Holstein-Fresian of cattle, although all breeds are suseptible. The disease usually is introduced to the cattle near puberty (12-15 months), and the incubation period of the disease is 5 or more years. The period of actual infection to death is frighteningly brief; the animal is usually dead within 4 months of showing symptoms. BSE belongs to a group of animal diseases term Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy (TSE). Different forms of TSE diseases can affect felines, rodents, and other ruminant

Evolution

1999-11-10T13:00:00-05:00
We act like animals, we eat like animals, and we are animals. The many theories of evolution such as Darwin's theory of evolution prove to us that we choose to believe that we are not animals when we really are. Evolution is the sequencial process of change over periods of time, which shapes and establishes the formation of modern man. In referring to evolution, the word means various changes. Evolution refers to the fabrication and development of life on earth. "Organic evolution" is the concept that all living beings evolved from simple organisms and have changed throughout the periods of time to create many and various types of species. Organic evolution is better known as the "theory of evolution." There are three main theories of evolution, which are, the early theories proposed by Comte de Buffon, Baron Cuvier, and Lamarck, the synthetic theory, and the Darwin theory. In the 1700s, French naturalists, Comte de Buffon and Baron Cuvier concluded with the studies of fossils and comparative anatomy that life on earth had endured many changes through a long period of time. In the early 1800s, another French naturalist named Lamark, proposed the first complete theory of evolution. He observed through is observations, depending on the extent to which the use of the structure, that an animal's body structure is able to change during its life span. He also noted that organs and muscles, which were used often, tended to become larger and stronger. On the contrary, the organs and muscles, which were used seldom, tended to become smaller and diminish. With these observations, Lamarck concluded that these characteristics were hereditary. Proposed during two decades, the 1930s and 1940s, the synthetic theory involved a group of scientists. The group of scientists included two American biologists, Russian Theodosius and German Ernst Mayr, and the British geneticist and statistician Ronald A. Fisher. Together, they proposed the synthetic theory which combined Darwin's theory of natural selection with the ideals of genetics. In 1808, French naturalist Chevalier de Lamarck contemplated a theory of evolution, although, his theory of evolution did not gain any recognition until 1858. In 1858, British naturalist Charles R. Darwin furnished his theory of evolution, also known as Darwin's theory. Along with Darwin's theory of evolution there early theories and the synthetic theory. In 1858, Charles Darwin furnished his theory of evolution and the majority of scientists accept the Darwin theory today. The

Health Aspects of Cocoa

1999-11-08T13:00:00-05:00
Thesis: The development and distribution of cocoa has had a positive effect on today's society because of it's active role in daily health. I. History of Cocoa A. Kakahutal Mayan and Aztec Culture B. Introduction to Europe C. Cocoa Press II. Mental and Physical Health A. Migraines B. Cholesterol 1. Stearic Acid 2. Oleic Acid 3. Flavonoids C. Premenstrual Syndrome D. Kidney Stones E. Chemical Craving Theories 1. Theobromine 2. Phenylithylamine 3. Endorphins Chocolate, one America's top industry's. We produce more chocolate and chocolate products than any other country, over 2.9 billion pounds a year. There has been much controversy about the lack of nutritional value of in it's contents, yet new studies have shown that cocoa, used to make chocolate, can be good for you. The development and distribution of cocoa has had a positive effect on today's society because of it's active role in daily health. Cocoa was last dated back to the Mayan and Aztec cultures in 1502. On Columbus' last voyage he brought a few cocoa beans from the new world to Spain but they were introduced as nothing more than seeds and so they were forgotten. Until 1519 when the Spanish explorer Hernando Cortez landed during his expedition to Mexico he came upon the people known as the Aztecs. While there he dined with many of the rich and powerful people of this society. He reported that these people drink amazing amounts of something they called choclatl (Chocolate! 12). Chocolatl a beverage made from corn meal, chili peppers, vanilla, and kakahutal or cocoa as it's known today. Cortez figured the if an Aztec king liked chocolatl, a Spanish king would too. So he brought some beans to Europe as one of the fabulous treasures from America. The Spanish royalty called their new drink chocolate. They sweetened it with sugar or honey and flavored it with cinnamon. But since the Spanish couldn't get enough beans for themselves, they didn't want to share them with anyone else. They kept the secret so well that, for many years, very few people in Europe knew about chocolate. When the secret finally leaked out, only rich people could afford the luxury. But soon more and more beans were being grown, and better ways of turning them into chocolate were discovered. Chocolate became so popular that cocoa pubs, houses where you can go eat and drink all the chocolate you wished, popped up across the English countryside. Cocoa was the first great stimulant to be used by the European society,

Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

1999-11-06T13:00:00-04:00
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram or, the H-R Diagram for short, is a graph which plots stars according to their temperature and absolute magnitude. This graph reveals a pattern, which in fact is quite interesting. The H-R Diagram is named for the two astronomers, Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Russell, who discovered this pattern of stars. These two astronomers independently discovered that comparing magnitudes and spectral class (color) of stars yielded a lot of information about them. One key purpose of the H-R diagram is to show the relationship between temperature and absolute magnitude of stars. The type of temperature measurement used is Kelvin, where the zero point is equal to -273.16 C. On the H-R Diagram, the temperature of degrees Kelvin ranges from 3,000 to 30,000. The absolute magnitude of stars on the H-R Diagram ranges from +15 to -10. Absolute magnitude is how bright stars would appear if they were positioned at 32.6 light years away from earth. On this scale, the lower the number, the brighter the star. Thus, a start with an absolute magnitude of -10 would be much brighter than a star with an absolute magnitude of +15. The two astronomers found many patterns after developing their graph. They found that 90% of stars graphed fell within a band that ran through the middle of the graph. These stars range from cool, dim, red stars at the lower right of the H-R Diagram to hot, bright, blue stars at the upper left corner of the H-R Diagram. The stars that fall into to this band are known as main-sequence stars. Stars such as the sun, and almost every start visible in the night sky fall within this band of main sequence stars. There is another group of stars which are cool and bright that appear near the upper right corner of the H-R Diagram. These stars are very large and therefore have very big surface areas. These large surface areas give off large amounts of light and this makes the stars bright. Most of these stars are known as red giants. Some are so large however that they are referred to as supergiants. Red giants have a temperature of about 3,500 degrees Kelvin and an absolute magnitude of around 0. Supergiants have a temperature of around 3,000 degrees Kelvin and an absolute magnitude of about -7. Another group of stars, which are rather small, is found near the

The Human Eye

1999-11-04T13:00:00-04:00
The Eye is the organ of sight. Eyes enable people to perform daily tasks and to learn about the world that surrounds them. Sight, or vision, is a rapidly occurring process that involves continuous interaction between the eye, the nervous system, and the brain. When someone looks at an object, what he/she is really seeing is the light that the object reflects, or gives off. This reflected light passes through the lens and falls on to the retina of the eye. Here, the light induces nerve impulses that travel through the optic nerve to the brain, where it makes an image of the object, and then that image is passed on to muscles and glands. The eye is well protected. It lies within a bony socket of the skull. The eyelids guard it in front. They blink an average of once every six seconds. This washes the eye with the salty secretion from the tear, or lachrymal, glands. Each tear gland is about the size and shape of an almond. These glands are located behind the upper eyelid at the outer corner of the eye. After passing over the eye, the liquid from the gland is drained into the nose through the tear duct at the inner corner of the eye. Heavy laughter or crying causes muscles in the upper eyelid to squeeze the lachrymal gland. This produces tears that flow too fast to be drained away. The eyelashes catch many flying particles that otherwise would enter the eye. As further protection, the eyelids automatically close when an object suddenly moves close to the eye. Parts Of the Eye The eye is made of 3 coats, or tunics. The outermost coat consists of the cornea and the sclera. The middle coat contains the main blood supply to the eye and consists of the choroid, the ciliary body, and the Iris. The innermost layer is the retina. Cornea and Sclera The Sclera, or the white of the eye, is composed of tough fibrous tissue. On the exposed area of the eye the scleral surface is covered with a mucous membrane called the conjunctiva. This protects the eye from becoming dry. The Cornea, a part of the sclera, is the transparent window of the eye through which light passes. The focusing of the light begins in the cornea. Behind the Cornea is a watery fluid called the aqueous humor. This fluid fills a curved, crescent shaped space, thick in the

Anorexia

1999-11-03T13:00:00-04:00
We all know that action is the key to success, and we always try to be the very best. But in a world that will try to knock you down you must have the strength to survive the final round. Growing up today you have to be wise because its hard to tell the truth when its covered by the lies. The world can be cruel and the world can be kind, but you had better step up or you'll be left behind. This is some of a poem that one of my friends from my support group had shared on the first day. But I shouldn't get to far ahead of myself, my name is Ender Olson, and I suffer from a very serious disorder, it is called anorexia. Some may say that anorexia is not that serious, but it changed my life, and many others. It started around when I was 13, I had never really had to worry about my weight, I had a fast digestive system, and I never seemed to gain weight. But when I hit puberty things seemed to change. My body was growing, and I started to put on weight, but this didn't bother me at all, and why should it have. But it started to in the summer of 1996, it was at summer camp, we had swimming, and it was mandatory. But unlike most of the kids I had no problem with this, I was a strong swimmer and enjoyed it allot. I got to my swim class and sat down. It was a very warm day, a day that I would remember for a long time. Well we all sat on the dock listing to them give instructions on what to do and stuff like that. But I was hot, so I took off my shirt, first mistake. The girls sitting across from me stared at me and were whispering to each other, but I had no idea what they were saying. So I did the class but as I got out of the water I was behind the two girls. They were laughing, the first one said "Did you see that guy, he had bigger boobs then you did." So I assumed they were talking about me. The signs all pointed that way, and that was the first time a person ever called me fat, and I was assured to make

The Future in Technology

1999-10-25T14:00:00-04:00
Can you imagine a machine so big it dwarfs entire planets? Can you imagine a machine with a single goal, a single purpose? Can you see it, hovering in space, blotting out the stars, so big it bends thought? Can you imagine a machine so complex that no human has ever even tried to understand it, and yet the machine exists because humans built it in the first place? A machine consisting of entire worlds, entire ecosystems powered by chemicals and energy regulated by computers that build and program themselves. Imagine these worlds connected by transport and communications systems, always kept up to date automatically, and modified as needed by the people who live in these habitats. Can you imagine a machine that makes money obsolete, anything you need is anticipated designed and made ready as fast as physically possible? Can you imagine this machine whose soul purpose is to keep hundreds of millions of multiplying people alive and happy at all times, growing bigger and bigger, growing more complex in the race to stay functioning, replacing its own parts by better parts designed by the machine itself, making it able to design and build even more complex parts, until the machine curves in on perfection, but never really reaches it. Can you imagine a machine with these capabilities being forced to purify and expand itself in order to fulfill trillions of people's needs? Can you see it being forced to build computers fast enough to plot every atom in a planet simply to manage the smooth communication between its multiple parts, simply to control the transport and flow of energy through this gigantic web of supply and demand? Can you see the hundreds of spheres being suspended in perfect harmony, each sphere containing an atmosphere with a functioning food chain and energy-tree, genetically perfect, everything held in place by massive computers. All this simply because a member of the human race desired such a world to live on. An entire Eco-sphere designed, built, genetically engineered to fulfill the needs of a single human. Do you want a desert environment, with light rains in the mornings, or do you want an ocean world, with crystal living quarters twenty miles under water that glows in the dark? Whatever you want, this machine will design it for you, creating new technology and materials where necessary if necessary. Can you imagine how many

The Bottle-Nosed Dolphin

1999-10-22T14:00:00-04:00
The Bottle-nosed Dolphin is the most studied and generally the best-known species of dolphin. Bottle-nosed dolphins are classified "Tursiops truncates" in scientific name, and belong to the family Delphinidae, in the suborder Odontoceti, order Cetacea. This animal is a very intelligent individual. Bottle-nosed dolphins are commonly found in zoos or marine parks because of their capability to perform tricks. They can jump through hoops 5 meters high because of their incredibly powerful tail. As well as jumping, Bottle-nosed dolphins can raise themselves upright out of the water and travel backwards, by threshing their tails. Bottle-nosed dolphins are generally coastal creatures, occurring along almost all tropical and temperate coasts, although offshore varieties also occur. In addition, the Bottle-nosed dolphin is called the "all-ocean" dolphin, meaning that it lives in every ocean. It is common for a school of 20 dolphins to live together in coastal regions, but school of 200 dolphins are found in the offshore verities. These schools do not seem to have a leader and generally stay together for life. Such sea life as shrimp, squid, small sharks, other vertebrates and fish are all a part of a Bottle-nosed dolphins diet. When they find a large school of fish, several schools of dolphins join up to form groups of up to 1000 dolphins. They work together to head and catch the fish. Another feeding method the Bottle-nosed dolphin has developed is chasing the fish on to mud banks and snaps them in the air. Bottle-nosed dolphins are an extremely adaptable mammal. For example, the Atlantic Ocean form tends to be a little smaller and stockier with a shorter rostrum (nose) compared to the Pacific form. In Scottish waters, Bottle-nosed dolphins are chubby with a dark gray complexion, while the in Australian waters, Bottle-nosed dolphins are thin, light gray appearance, with a dominant circle around each eye. The reason why this dolphin may change its physical appearance is because there may be more fish in Scotland, or the prey may be a slower breed, making the Bottle-nosed dolphin not work as hard for its food, therefore creating a chubbier breed of Bottle-nosed dolphin compared to other parts of the world. Bottle-nosed dolphin have recently been introduced and are now bonding with humans in dolphin watching and swim-with-dolphin tourism activities in nature. A female Bottle-nosed dolphin will mature between the age of 5 to 12 years, and males at 9 to 13 years. Bottle-nosed dolphins

Communications Technology: Global Information Infrastructure

1999-10-18T14:00:00-04:00
Introduction We are in the midst of a global information revolution driven by the convergence and proliferation of information and communication technologies. The telecommunications sector is changing at warp speed, driven by technological innovation that results in new equipment and services, and also by new entrants and alliances between companies with experience in a wide range of information industries from telecommunications to broadcasting to computer hardware and software to publishing. Three major trends are driving these changes:
the rapid introduction of new technologies and services;
the restructuring of the telecommunications sector; and
globalization of economies and of communications. Together these developments are not only changing the world of telecommunications, but the ways people work, learn, and interact. The Death of Distance "The death of distance as a determinant of the cost of communications will probably be the single most important economic force shaping society in the first half of the next century." The death of distance could have profound implications for both individuals and organizations. The ability to work "anytime, anywhere" allows "road warriors" to work without offices on planes, in hotels, and at client sites, and enables information workers to telecommute from their homes rather than traveling to work. This flexibility can be two-edged for individuals, who can work wherever they choose but may never escape the "virtual workplace." Organizations may reduce their overhead costs and improve their productivity, but they must also learn how to manage their decentralized work force. One major technological trend is the extension of "information superhighways" in the form of broadband networks; another is the increasing ubiquity of communications using wireless technologies (that will, however, initially provide access to squirts rather than floods of information). Personal communications networks using microcellular technology will allow people in urban areas not only to talk on pocket-sized telephones, but to transmit and receive data using wireless modems. In rural and developing areas, these services may be available from low earth-orbiting (LEO) satellite systems. On an international level, the death of distance has profound implications for the globalization of industries and national economies. Rural regions in Europe and North America may lure businesses with their pleasant environment and lower labor costs; however, they are no longer competing only with cities in their own countries. Companies may hire information workers in developing countries where labor is far cheaper, not only for data entry and word processing, but for writing computer programs. Conversely, developing

History Of Physics

1999-10-10T14:00:00-04:00
Early Physics Physics began when man first started to study his surroundings. Early applications of physics include the invention of the wheel and of primitive weapons. The people who built Stone Henge had a knowledge of physical mechanics in order to move the rocks and place them on top of each other. It was not until during the period of Greek culture that the first systematic treatment of physics started with the use of mechanics. Thales of Miletus (636BC. - 546BC.) Thales is often said to have been the first scientist, and the first Greek philosopher. He was an astronomer, merchant and mathematician, and after visiting Egypt he is said to have originated the science of deductive geometry. He also discovered theorems of elementary geometry and is said to have correctly predicted an eclipse of the sun. Many of his studies were in astronomy but he also observed static electricity. Phythogoras (582BC. - 497BC.) Phythogoras was a Greek philosopher. He discovered simple numerical ratios relating the musical tones of major consonances, to the length of the strings used in sounding them. The Pythagorean theorem was named after him, although this fundamental statements of deductive geometry was most likely first an idea from Egyptian methods of measurements. With the help of his followers he discovered that the earth was a sphere, but he did not believe it revolved around the su Democritus (470BC. - 380BC.) Democritus was the leader of a group called Atomists. Although they were unable to prove that matter was made up of small particles, they were the first to come up with the idea. Democritus believed that atoms differed in size, shape, and movement but were all made of the same substances. Aristotle (384BC. - 332BC.) Aristotle was the most important scientific philosopher in Greece. He believed that all matter on earth consisted of four pure substances or elements, which were earth, air, fire, and water. He also believed that the earth was the centre of the universe, and that anything beyond the earth consisted of a fifth pure substance called quintessence. Archimedes (287-212B.C.) Archimedes was an inventor and mathematician, who discovered several basic scientific principles and developed a number of measuring techniques. Ptolemy (100AD.) Ptolemy was an Egyptian astronomer. He developed a model for predicting the positions of the sun, moon, stars, and planets. Like Aristotle, he believed that the earth was the centre of the universe. The Middle Ages Between 400 AD.

Optics

1999-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Aim: To examine characteristics of a converging lens and the images they create. Also to examine the focal length and how the focus point may be found and developing rules for locating an image via ray drawings and the intersection of rays. Chromatic aberration will also be explored and why it happens. Theory: Both lenses and mirrors have a principle axis, yet a lens has two focal points as opposed to a mirror that has only one. When considering converging lenses, the primary focal point (PF) can be found on the opposite side of the lens in regards to the light. The secondary focal point (SF) being on the same side as the light source. Focus points on thin double convex lenses are located at either side of the lens, measured from the middle of the lens itself (see below). Chromatic aberration is a problem of converging lenses that will also be explored in this experiment. A description of each image produced will also be given (attitude, type, magnification and location). Apparatus: The main tools (apparatus) used in the experiment consist of a ray box containing cards which allow one, two, three or four rays onto a sheet of paper at a time so that rays path from the box to the mirror will be able to be traced. Also two (2) different types of converging lenses, one being cylindrical while the other being spherical, the difference being that the spherical one is used for viewing, the cylindrical one for use with the ray box. These lenses are one of many different sorts of lenses in the "lens box". The use of a ruler would also be helpful so that accurate measurements may be taken. Method: 1. A cylindrical lens was placed on paper and traced around, a principal axis was drawn making sure that it's at rights angles to the lens. The ray box was switched on (exposing only one ray) and lined up parallel to the principle axis, a mark where the ray leaves the box was made as well as where it hits the lens (on both sides) and where the ray bisects the principle axis. After this, the ray box was removed and using a ruler, rays were accurately drawn. The focus point (f) was measured to be of length 7.3cm (7.25). 2. The lens was replaced back on a sheet of paper with ray box emitting three rays, the

Physics Research Assignment - Solonoids

1999-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Summary of Investigation An investigation was carried out to find out the relationship between the force created in a wire (or solenoid) when current flowed through it and the force from gravity. This was investigated by connecting a solenoid up to a variable power pack and then placing a light ring of either copper or aluminum around the solenoid. When the current flows through the solenoid, a magnetic force created from the solenoid should make the ring 'jump' up or levitate. When carrying out the experiment, the assumption was made that there will be some movement from the ring when current starts flowing through the solenoid and thus a magnetic field will be present. However, the results of the experiment did not back up this assumption in any way. No magnetic force was observed in any of the experiments carried out. Introduction Electromagnetism is the study of the relationships between magnetism, and electricity. It was found by Hans Oersted, that when an electric current flows in a wire, the current creates a magnetic force around this wire. It is also known that a solenoid produces a considerably large amount of magnetic force when a current flows through it (diagram 1.1 ). By using a solenoid and some small, light rings of copper and aluminum, it is said that the ring when placed over the solenoid when current is flowing will 'jump' up and sometimes levitate if the force of the magnetic field equals that of the earth's gravitational force. Aim The main objective of this experiment is to investigate the relationship between gravitational energy and electric and magnetic energy. This will be achieved by attempting to suspend a light ring of copper and/or aluminum around a solenoid with a current passing through it. The only presumption is that if the ring is unable to be levitated (due to lack of power), there will still be movement and the ring will jump up from the base of the solenoid. Method The circuit used first (see diagram 2.1) was made up of a small solenoid. The solenoid was constructed using a small pencil, bound with electrical tape and copper wire wound around it to a length of 13cm. Zinc plated washers were first used in the circuit using a DC voltage. Because DC voltage was being used, the ring was expected to 'jump' only when the circuit was switched on and off. All voltages on the power supply were

Physics Prac - Mesuring Wavelengths of Light

1999-10-09T14:00:00-04:00
Aim: To determine the approximate value of l for red light using a diffraction kit. Theory: Diffraction of light is one explanation of the wave theory of light. Francesco Grimaldi first observed this type of behvaiour from light. However, Thomas Young was the scientist that was able to derive a mathematical formula where l can be calculated. The original experiment involved sending white light into a screen with two small holes to serve as point sources. The light from these sources was then projected onto a screen and light and dark bands were observed. The mathematical formula could then be used after taking certain measurements. Equipment: Light source (Ray box), Red cellophane, Double-slit slide, and Measuring rod (can be already attached to Ray box. Method: 1. Set up the ray box and place red cellophane in clip so that it is over the bulb. 2. Switch on ray box and stand approximately two meters away from the ray box, hold the slide up to your eye and look through one of the double slit patterns into the light. Observe disturbance pattern. 3. While looking through the slide, have someone move the white marker along the slide rule until its edge is approximately halfway inside a dark or light band. 4. Take measurement down and then repeat step 3 and gain measurement for other dark or light bands. Results: The results gained from the experiment were conclusive and accurate when compared to the original value for l for red light. Below is a table of the measurements recorded and calculations to gain l. Calculation (con't): The value d was calculated by placing the slide in a projector and then on the whiteboard (acting as a screen), marks were made. The slide had a measurement of 1cm and from this the ratio 35:1 was established. Measurements were then made and the slides actual measurements were determined. For this particular experiment, the slide marking D was used. L was measured also using simple trigonometry. The person viewing through the slide sat at a table and then looked down at the ray box on an angle. From measurements taken, L was able to be calculated quite accuratly. Conclusion and Discussion 1. The l for red light is approximately 662nm (averaging out three results gained). This is within the acceptable range being 650nm à 700nm. 2. Difficulties were experianced when trying to take measurements for x. It was hard to define the edge of the white marker and also count the number

Erectyle disfunction

1999-10-02T14:00:00-04:00
Will we ever be able to produce something capable of making us reach the optimum of one of humankind's most basic needs? Will there always be a side effect? Since the beginnings of civilization, people have been obsessed about their sexuality. Men and women have always tried to achieve a maximum amount of pleasure in any possible way. For human beings this is obtained through the orgasm. Humans usually attain this is goal through sexual intercourse or masturbation. However, sometimes the psychological and physical conditions of a person can deprive him or her from reaching that goal. Thankfully, science and anatomy have also always interested mankind. This has helped to find solutions for problems dealing with our sexuality, which, as a matter of fact are very common. The most recurrent and drastic of all these dilemmas is that of impotence. The term "impotence" has traditionally been used to signify the inability of the male to attain and maintain erection of the penis sufficient to permit satisfactory sexual intercourse. However, this use has often led to confusing and uninterpretable results in both clinical and basic science investigations. This, together with its pejorative implications, suggests that the more precise term "erectile dysfunction" be used instead to signify an inability of the male to achieve an erect penis as part of the overall multifaceted process of male sexual function. Erectile dysfunction affects millions of men. Although for some men erectile function may not be the best or most important measure of sexual satisfaction, for many men erectile dysfunction creates mental stress that affects their interactions with family and associates. All these things might be very interesting, but to fully understand erectile dysfunction we must first take a look into the physiology of the male erection. In its most common form, the male erectile response is initiated by a central nervous system event that integrates psychogenic stimuli (perception, desire, etc.) and controls the sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the penis. Parasympathetic input allows an erection by relaxation of trabecular smooth muscle and dilation of the helicine arteries of the penis. This fills the spongy tissue that forms the penis with blood; a process referred to as the corporal veno occlusive mechanism. The erectile tissues must have sufficient stiffness to compress the blood vessels penetrating it so that venous outflow is blocked and sufficient tumescence and rigidity can occur. Constriction of the trabecular smooth muscle and helicine arteries

Depression

1999-09-15T14:00:00-04:00
Depression is a psychiatric disorder characterized by feelings of worthlessness, guilt, sadness, helplessness, and hopelessness. It is different then normal sadness or grief from the loss of a loved one because it is persistent and severe. Clinical depression has many related symptoms trouble sleeping, eating disorders, withdrawal and inactivity, self-punishment, and loss of pleasure. People that are depressed do not like to do things they may usually like to. Surveys that have been taken that show approximately 20 in 100 people suffer from depression at any one time. About one if four Americans will suffer from a depression over the course of their lifetime. Depression strikes men and women of all ages, in all races, but most studies indicate that women are more often afflicted. There are two major forms of depression that people get. One form is called depressive disorder. It is diagnosed only by episodes of depression. Episodes can be short or long but are usually brought about by an incident in a persons life. An example of this is if someone close to them dies. The other kind is called bipolar or manic depressive illness, it is recognized by alternating depressed and manic episodes. This is an actual brain dysfunction. In the major depression or the depressed phase of bipolar illness, a depressed mood predominates, even though the patient may not be aware of feeling sad. Typically, he or she loses all interest in activities. Symptoms include sleep disturbances, not able to concentrate or to make decisions, loss of appetite or greatly increased appetite, slowed thinking and decreased energy feelings of worthlessness, guilt, hopelessness, diminished sexual interest, and recurrent thoughts of suicide and death, sometimes leading a person to actually committing suicide. In the manic phase of bipolar disorder the patients behavior is bizarre and sometimes obnoxious. Symptoms of this are the person being hyper and have lots of energy, they talk a lot, racing thoughts, and a decreased need for sleep. In this stage it is very hard to recognize. Both depressive and bipolar disorders run in families. Meaning if your father or mother had it you have a high chance of getting it yourself. Most people who are depressed are women. They may be biologically induced depression. Meaning that there is a lack of or too much of a chemical or protein. Or it may be that women learn social roles that favor feelings of helplessness. Because

Marijuana

1999-09-15T14:00:00-04:00
Cannabis Sativa (marijuana) has been thought to be an illegal and very harmful drug for many years. But as you read this report you will learn that marijuana has been around for many years (most years legal) and isn't as harmful as some people may think. Marijuana has been used for many things in the past, including medicine, hemp rope, crude cloth and enjoyment. Now it is mainly used as a narcotic. Marijuana is an illegal weed that grows up to eighteen feet tall with little or no cultivation. The plant has many branches that extend with large, hairy, pointed leaves with saw tooth edges. Marijuana grows wild all over the world and in some states and countries it's legal. Cloth and rope are made from the stem which contains a tough fiber called "hence." The mind-altering drug in marijuana is called "Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannibinol," or THC. The mildest form of marijuana contains between zero to three percent of THC. Most of the THC is contained in the resign, which is secreted around the flowers, seeds, and topmast leaves. Until recently it was thought that only the female plant contained the drug. But it is now known that both the female and the male plants contain THC. THC stays in the body for about 28 days. Marijuana can be prepared many different ways therefore it has many different ways of entering the body. When smoked the THC goes into the lungs, directly into the bloodstream and to every cell in your body. The effects depend upon the level of potency and how much is consumed. The main effects of smoking are: the heart rate may increase from 80 beats to 150 beats a minute, the bronchial tubes enlarge and become relaxed allowing extra oxygen to enter the body, giving a "High" like feeling. There are no immediate physiological effects. The feeling usually lasts from one to three hours. Marijuana can also be ingested as a drink, cakes, brownies or many other foods. When consumed in foods the effects start after one half-hour and last from three to four hours. The potency of Marijuana has increased at least ten times or 275% since the 1960's. Marijuana can be measured by it's "therapeutic ratio," (the difference between the size of the dose needed for the desired effect and the! size that produces poisoning). The therapeutic ratio in marijuana has yet to be found. The negative long

Technology's Impact on the Rain Forest

1999-09-15T14:00:00-04:00
With all the technological advancements, the rain forest has been greatly effected. Not only have the trees been cut down but also there have positive aspects to the technology concerning this precious resource. Peter White, a chief writer for National Geographic magazine once said, " The tropical rain forest may well be nature's chief liberty of experience from which all of humanity can learn, not only how to do things but also what a vast variety of things may be possible"(24). We all can learn from this for, the rain forest is a key to our environment and with all the technology destroying it and barely replacing it we all should think about what is happening and what can be done to save it. With the great progression of technology through this century the rain forest has rapidly been destroyed. Being the home of nearly 50% of all species, the rain forest is a resource that should and must be saved. It is once thought that the tropical rain forest once spanned the great space of 1.5 billion hectares. But as the time goes on slowly that number diminishes. In the year 2000 it is theorized that there will only be 900 hectares left on this world (Palmer/4). Even though there is not any rain forest in the United states, the rain forest greatly effects us in ways not known to all. Many medicines are found in the rain forest and many of them treat common diseases. Malaria for example is a disease that has it's treatment coming from quinine, taken form the cinchona tree in Peru. Also when you have surgery, d-tarbocuranine is greatly relied on as a muscle relaxer. It is made form curare, derived from an Amazonian liana (Palmer/23). This research shows that the medicinal aspect of the rain forest is definitely needed for the advancement of technology itself. Much of the new technology being made in the times that we are living in now, relies on the rain forest. The packaging in which all the new stereos and CD players are shipped, come from the trees. These trees are cut down into small pieces to make cardboard for the selfish needs of humanity (White 28). A massive amount of women have been on birth control and one of the major components of the pill is diosgenin. This is made from wild yams found in Mexico (Palmer

Nitrogen

1999-09-15T14:00:00-04:00
Nitrogen was isolated by the British physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772 and recognized as an elemental gas by the French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier about 1776. Properties Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, nontoxic gas. It can be condensed into a colorless liquid, which can in turn be compressed into a colorless, crystalline solid. Nitrogen exists in two natural forms of isotopes, and four radioactive isotopes have been artificially prepared. Nitrogen melts at -210.01° C (-346.02° F), boils at -195.79° C (-320.42° F), and has a density of 1.251 g/liter at 0° C (32° F). The atomic weight of nitrogen is 14.007. Nitrogen is obtained from the atmosphere by passing air over heated copper or iron. The oxygen is removed from the air, leaving nitrogen mixed with some inert gases. Pure nitrogen is obtained by partial evaporation of liquid air because liquid nitrogen has a lower boiling point than liquid oxygen, the nitrogen evaporates off first and can be collected. Nitrogen composes about four-fifths (78.03 percent) by volume of the atmosphere. Nitrogen is inert and serves as a diluent for oxygen in burning and respiration processes. It is an important element in plant nutrition certain bacteria in the soil convert nitrogen from the atmosphere into a form, such as nitrate, that can be absorbed by plants, a process called nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen in the form of protein is an important component of animal tissue. The element occurs in the combined state in minerals, of which saltpeter (KNO3) and Chile saltpeter (NaNO3) are highly important products. Nitrogen combines with other elements only at very high temperatures or pressures. It is converted to an active form by passing through an electric discharge at low pressure. The nitrogen produced is very active, combining with alkali metals to form azides with the vapor of zinc, mercury cadmium, and arsenic to form nitrides and with many hydrocarbons to form nitriles. Activated nitrogen returns to ordinary nitrogen in about one minute.In the combined state nitrogen takes has many reactions it forms so many compounds that a systematic scheme of compounds containing nitrogen in place of oxygen was created by the American chemist Edward Franklin. In compounds nitrogen exists in all the combination capacity states between -3 and +5. Ammonia, and hydroxylamine represent compounds in which the combination capacity of nitrogen is -3, -2, and -1, individually. Oxides of nitrogen represent nitrogen in all the positive combination capacity states. Uses Most of

Why Xeon Doesn't React

1999-09-15T14:00:00-04:00
Xenon is a rare, colorless, odorless, tasteless, chemically unreactive gas. It is one of the inert gas elements found in group 0 of the periodic table. Xenon was long considered incapable of chemical reaction, but in 1962 Neil Bartlett, a Canadian chemist, reported synthesis of xenon hexafluoroplatinate, XePtF6, a true compound. Before 1962, people thought that xenon and other noble gases were unable to form compounds. Now, xenon's reported compounds are

Networking

1999-09-14T14:00:00-04:00
There are many kinds of networks, however this paper will be about networking computers. As we move further and further into the paperless society, the need for people to be connected and able to exchange data just as fast as they could by handing a paper to someone increases. This can be accomplished by having a group of computers connected by a network, so that as soon as data is entered into one computer, it can be immediately accessed by someone else on a connected computer, no matter how far away it may be (though usually it is in the same building). There is much work involved in this and it in includes a lot of math, from equations to basic problems. This report will be based around the mathematical aspects of setting up a network. The first mathematical question in setting up a network is very basic. How many computers will be connected to this network and how many guest computers might come on at one time is the question. An example of a guest computer is if someone brought a laptop and connected it for a short while to download or access data. To find the answer to the question, simply count the desktop computers that will be connected and how many guest computers you expect to be connected at one time. The second mathematical problem that occurs is best solved using an algebraic equation. Let x=the amount of desktop computers that will always be connected, y=the amount of guest computers that you expect to be connected at one time. So, the equation is: x+y+1. The one added on the end of the equation is another guest file just to make sure you don't fall short. So, this tells you how many files you need to create. The guest files will all be generically named so that all guests have the same access privileges, and all the permanent computers will have their own named file so they can have more personalized access privileges. These files are put on one main computer, the server. This controls all access privileges and any data put into a computer branching off from it in it's network can be accessed from this all-powerful server computer. The previously stated problems are a large part of networking, although I couldn't possibly tell about all the math involved without going on for another 3 or 4 pages.

Human Evolution

1999-09-14T14:00:00-04:00
Evolution is the complexity of processes by which living organisms established on earth and have been expanded and modified through theorized changes in form and function. Human evolution is the biological and cultural development of the species Homo sapiens sapiens, or human beings. Humans evolved from apes because of their similarities. This can be shown in the evidence that humans had a decrease in the size of the face and teeth that evolved. Early humans are classified in ten different types of families. Creationists believe that humans were always humans. Humans are classified in the mammalian family Primates. In this arrangement, humans, along with our extinct close ancestors, and our nearest living relatives, the African apes, are sometimes placed together in the family Hominidae because of genetic similarities. Two-leg walking seems to be one of the earliest of the major hominine characteristics to have evolved. In the course of human evolution the size of the brain has been more than tripled. The increase in brain size may be related to changes in hominine behavior (See figure 3). The third major trend in hominine development is the gradual decrease in the size of the face and teeth. According to the Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia '98, the fossil evidence for direct ancestors of modern humans is divided into the category Australopithecus and Homo, and begins about 5 million years ago (See figure 1). Between 7 and 20 million years ago, primitive apelike animals were widely distributed on the African and, later, on the Eurasian continents (See figure 2). Although many fossil bones and teeth have been found, the way of life of these creatures, and their evolutionary relationships to the living apes and humans, remain matters of active discussion among scientists. The evidence for human evolution begins with the australopithecines. All the australopithecines were bipedal and therefore possible hominines. In details of their teeth, jaws, and brain size, however, they modify enough among themselves to be divided into five species: Australopithecus anamensis, A. afarensis, A. africanus, A. robustus, and A. boisei. Genus Homo are also divided in five different spices: Homo erectus, H. habilis, H. sapiens, and H. sapiens sapiens. According to Britannica Encyclopædia, Australopithecus anamensis lived in Kenya between 4.2 million and 3.9 million years ago. A. afarensis lived in eastern Africa between 3 and 4 million years ago. This australopithecine had a brain size a little larger than chimpanzees. Some had canine teeth

Evolution

1999-09-14T14:00:00-04:00
Like the biblical hero Adam, a single cell let part of it's body become another being, now one of a pair. Like the heroin Eve this duplicate created more of it's species. These multiplying cells joined together into a legacy long in running. The history of our evolution is dark, we fumble for answers yet still need more light to unlock the mysteries beneath. One must remember that when speaking of the theory of evolution one is not only referring to humans but to other species of the kingdom Animalia as well. Some of the most prominant evolutionary theories of all time can be found in Charles Darwin's 'Origin of Species'. His conclusions linked homo sapiens skeletal systems to an ungodly creature, Primates such as apes, gorillas, and monkeys were found to be closely linked to the evolved human of the time. Within 500,000 years time, he claimed, that we had evolved from Australopithicus Ramidus to the present Homo Sapiens that we are catoragized as. He sums the entire evolutionary theory up by stating in his book, "We must....acknowledge, as it seems to me, that man with all his noble qualities, sympathy, benevolence, and god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system itself-with all these exalted powers-Man still bears in his bodily frame the incredible stamp of his lowly origin." This statement may be backed by any number of appeals, yet one must ring forth as the answer. Survival of the Fittest, the natural idea that any single being in a species will survive if it is the best at hunting, existing, and passing down it's gene pool. These "super" animals, inside a single species, may have developed some sort of genetic mutation allowing for easier grip on prey, faster movement, quicker reflexes, or just plainly made them more attractive to the opposite sex in their species. In any case, this mutation, this freak of nature, has caused the animals to live, and breed, and pass down it's mutation to it's offspring. When a primitive Homo Habillis gave birth to young that could eventually stand taller and straighter than it's ancestors was anything marvelous thought of it? When this taller primate gave birth to increasingly upright offspring, again, was anything marvelous thought of that? Yet finally when an adult Homo Habillis stood vertically enough to reach fruit on the trees, to use more force than it's

Infectious Mononucleosis

1999-09-14T14:00:00-04:00
Cause Infectious mononucleosis is caused by the Ebstein-Barr virus, which is a member of the herpes family. This family also includes the viruses that cause cold sores, chicken pox, genital herpes, and birth defects. The Ebstein-Barr virus has a lengthy incubation period and symptoms usually take about 4-10 weeks to develop. Once a person is infected with a herpes virus, it never really goes away. The viruses are able to lie dormant in our bodies and become active at any time. The only way mono can be spread is through direct contact with infected saliva. That explains why it is known as the "kissing disease". Drinking from each- others glasses, sharing silverware, and coughing can also spread the virus. In rare cases it can be transmitted from person to person through blood transfusions. A person can only be infected when someone who has the virus passes it to someone who has never been exposed. But less than 5% of people w/ mono can recall being in contact w/ someone who had mono. That is b/c some people are strictly carriers. They carry the virus and pass it along to someone else without ever getting any symptoms themselves. Population Affected Anyone can get mono. About 70-80% of all cases occur in people btw/ the ages of 15-30. Mono is most common among high school and college students who immune systems are usually run down from stress and fatigue. Although mono peaks earlier in females, it occurs more often in males. Females are usually 15-16 when they contract mono and males tend to be around 18-23. It is estimated that by the age of 40, 95% of the population has already had mono. That might be hard to believe, but most people who had mono didn't even know it. They had such mild cases that they thought it was just a cold or flu and their bodies were able to produce antibodies against ever having mono again. Symptoms If symptoms do appear, they don't develop immediately. The incubation period lasts anywhere from 2 to 7 weeks. The 1st symptoms are commonly mistaken for a cold. They are headache, fatigue, loss of appetite, and chills. The symptoms become more severe as the body's lymphatic system is affected. These include extreme exhaustion, sore throat, fever and swollen glands. Sore muscles, weakness, nausea, and difficulty breathing have also been reported. The typical mono symptoms usually last 1-3 weeks, but they can go

Cloning

1999-09-14T14:00:00-04:00
The History of Cloning The theory of being able to make a genetic copy (a clone) of another animal has been around for quite a while. In this section as the title reads I will show the history of cloning. 400 million years B. C.- Plants have been cloning themselves since not to long (as far as the Earth is concerned) after their introduction to our planet. They send out runners that create an identical copy of the parent plant. 1938- Hans Spermann, of Germany, envisions what he calls the "fantastical experiment". He suggests taking the nucleus from a cell in the late-stage embryo and transplanting that nucleus into an egg. 1952- Scientists Robert Briggs and T.J. King use a pipette to suck the nucleus from the cell of an advanced frog embryo, they then add it to a frog egg. The egg didn't develop. 1970- John Gurdon tries the same experiment with the same procedure. The eggs developed into tadpoles but died after they were ready to begin feeding. He later showed that transplanted nuclei revert to an embryonic state. 1973- Ian Wilmut just finishes his doctorate at Cambridge University when he produces the first calf born from a frozen embryo. Cows only give birth to five to ten calves in a lifetime. By taking frozen embryos produced by cows that provide the best meat or milk then transferring that to surrogate mother it allows cattle farmers increase the quality of their herd. Mid to late 1970's- Scientists cut down small forests publishing research papers arguing the ethics of cloning and if it can be done. While they do this other researches around the world are actually investigating if it can be done. 1981- Karl Illmensee and Peter Hoppe report that they clone normal mice and embryo cells. It is later found to be a fraud. 1982- James McGrath and Davor Solter report that they can not repeat the mouse cloning experiment. They conclude that once mouse embryos reach the two cell stage they cannot be used for cloning. Others confirm their results. 1993- Embryologists at George Washington University cloned human embryos: they took cell groups from 17 human embryos (defective ones that an infertility clinic was going to discard), all two to eight cells in size. They teased apart cells , grew each one in a lab dish and a few got to 32 cells- a size when they can be planted into a surrogate mother,

The Controversy Around Banning Books

1999-09-13T14:00:00-04:00
The subject of censorship is a very controversial one, especially the banning of books. Many people believe they must protect themselves and others from the "evils" of many classic books and works of art because they can be deemed "indecent" in one way or another. Many believe that this is absurd and censorship in its current form is a violation of our First Amendment right to free speech. Personally, I align myself with the latter, however I do feel there are occasions where censorship is justifiable. The censorship of books is a division of censorship that, apart from Internet censorship, receives the most publicity. Banning books is the most popular form of such censorship. Many banned books are literary classics, such as The Catcher in the Rye, by J.D. Salinger, which was listed as the number 6 most challenged or banned book in a list compiled by the American Civil Liberties Union in 1997. This book has been banned from school libraries all over the country because of the main character's teenage angst, which many feel is too graphic for teenagers, and its profanity. Profanity, whether it be frequent or a rare occurrence, is a characteristic of many literary classics, as is the use of racial epithets. In the book Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain (ranking number 2 on the list), an epithet is use many times over to describe the people of color in the book. Now since the book was published in 1885 and such language was common at the time, I do not believe that banning such a book is necessary. An excuse commonly used by advocates of banning books that use graphic language or racial epithets is that they do not want children exposed to it. It is my belief that since by the time the child is required to read such literature in school, they are at an age where they can distinguish between things that should and should not be said and it is the job of the parents to educate the child that just because they say it in a book does not mean he or she should. Another subject common to banned and censored books is sexuality. An excellent example of a book in question containing sexual content is The Chocolate War, by Robert Cormier, which ranked number 5 on the ACLU's list. Now considering the fact that this frequently banned book is written

Ebola

1999-09-13T14:00:00-04:00
In the year 1976, Ebola climbed out of its unknown hiding place, and caused the death of 340 people. Fear gripped the victims' faces, and uncertainty tortured their minds. The people of Zaire waited outside clinics, churches and in their homes for a treatment of the horrible disease, but there was no cure. They were forced to watch people die, hoping that they would be saved from the violent death of the Ebola virus. From the year of 1976 to the present date of 1996, researchers have searched for origin and cure of the virus. Scientist have carried out numerous studies and investigations, but no one has been able to find the right explanations. Prevention of a world wide outbreak lies within the education of what the virus is capable of doing, how Ebola victims can be properly treated, and by performing prompt action to isolate the virus before it has dispersed. The Ebola virus is a member of a family of RNA viruses know as filoviruses. Marburg virus and four Ebola viruses: Ebola Zaire, Sudan, Reston and Tai are the five different viruses that have been known to cause disease in humans, while Ebola Reston only causes disease within monkeys. Filoviruses are the viruses responsible for causing viral hemorrhagic fevers. All forms of virus of viral hemorrhagic fever begin with fever and muscle aches. Ebola Zaire attacks every organ and tissue in the human body except skeletal muscle and bone. It is a perfect parasite because it transforms virtually every part of the body into a digested slime of virus particles. The seven mysterious proteins that, assembled together, make up the Ebola-virus particle work as a relentless machine, a molecular shark, and they consume the body as the virus makes copies of itself. Your skin develops blood clots under the skin. Your organs turn to mush and the underlayers of your skin die and liquefy. The ! skin bubbles up to form a blood rash. Your mouth bleeds, and you bleed around your teeth, and you may have hemorrhages from the salivary glands. Every opening in your body, no matter how small, excretes blood. The surface of the tongue turns brilliant red and then falls off. It is swallowed or spat out when you vomit up blood. Your heart bleeds in itself and you are not dead. Blood gets into your eyelids and you weep blood. Before you finally

Human Evolution

1999-09-13T14:00:00-04:00
Evolution is the complexity of processes by which living organisms established on earth and have been expanded and modified through theorized changes in form and function. Human evolution is the biological and cultural development of the species Homo sapiens, or human beings. Humans evolved from apes because of their similarities. Humans had a decrease in the size of the face and teeth that evolved. Early humans are classified in ten different types families. Creationists believe that humans were always humans. Humans are classified in the mammalian family Primates. In this arrangement, humans, along with our extinct close ancestors, and our nearest living relatives, the African apes, are sometimes placed together in the family Hominidae because of genetic similarities. Two-legged walking seems to be one of the earliest of the major hominine characteristics to have evolved. In the course of human evolution the size of the brain has more than tripled. The increase in brain size may be related to changes in hominine behavior (See figure 3). The third major trend in hominine development is the gradual decrease in the size of the face and teeth. According to the Microsoft Encarta '98, the fossil evidence for direct ancestors of modern humans is divided into the category Australopithecus and Homo, and begins about 5 million years ago (See figure 1). Between 7 and 20 million years ago, primitive apelike animals were widely distributed on the African and, later, on the Eurasian continents. Although many fossil bones and teeth have been found, the way of life of these creatures, and their evolutionary relationships to the living apes and humans, remain matters of active discussion among scientists. The fossil evidence for human evolution begins with the australopithecines. All the australopithecines were clearly bipedal and therefore apparent hominines. In details of their teeth, jaws, and brain size, however, they modify enough among themselves to explain division into five species: Australopithecus anamensis, A. afarensis, A. africanus, A. robustus, and A. boisei. Homo are also divided in five different spices: Homo erectus, H. habilis, H. sapiens, and H. sapiens sapiens. Afarensis, lived in eastern Africa between 3 and 4 million years ago. This australopithecine had a brain size a little larger than chimpanzees. Some possessed canine teeth somewhat more sticking out than those of later hominines. No tools of any kind have been found with A. afarensis fossils. Between about 2.5 million and 3 million years ago, A. afarensis apparently

Tiger Sharks

1999-09-12T14:00:00-04:00
Description of Tiger Sharks Information about Tiger sharks is rare in books so most of this paper will be about sharks in general. The Tiger Shark's Latin name is Galeocerdo cuvier. Sharks are a member of the fish family. There are over 350 species of sharks. Sharks can be as big as 49 feet long (whale shark) and as short as 6 inches (cigar shark). Sharks' bodies do not have bones, but have cartilage instead. They have pointed heads with five gills behind it. Sharks have very sharp teeth that are replaced whenever they lose teeth. Sharks' skin can be reddish brown, bronze, metallic blue or nearly black, although most of them are gray. Some have spots, bands and marbling. Their skin is leathery and covered with small pointed scales which are so sharp that if petted in the opposite direction can actually hurt your hand. Sharks have great senses. Their eyes are sensitive and can even see in dim light. Their sense of smell is outstanding. They also have senses that humans do not. Sharks can feel when other things are around them. Also, they have organs on their snouts which tell them when other fish are around. Sharks are known to eat every creature in the sea including their own kind. Some sharks eat only plants and plankton. Others prefer live food. People have found very unusual things in sharks' stomachs such as hooves of cows, horses, dogs, cats, goats and human corpses. Unlike bony fish which lay hundreds of eggs at one time, sharks litters are much smaller. Some sharks have as few as two offspring at a time. Bony fish babies are born small and puny. Shark "pups" are born fully developed and are ready to eat the foods that full-grown sharks eat. Some of sharks' behavior is interesting and understood. Other behaviors are still mysterious. For example, sharks attack when they are hungry. But why they attack when they are not hungry, we do not know. They may attack for defense, because they think humans are food, because they smell blood or because they smell or sense chemicals that are interesting to them. While people may think that all sharks are dangerous, only about 30 species are considered dangerous, including the Tiger Shark. Even when sharks do attack, the victims usually do not die anyway. Where Sharks Live Sharks are found in all of the world's oceans although most

Genetic Modification of Food- Argumentive Essay

1999-09-11T14:00:00-04:00
GENETICALLY ENGINEERED FOODS- RISK TO HUMANITY Giant transnational companies are carrying out a dangerous global experiment by introducing large numbers of genetically engineered foods into our diet. Genetic manipulations can result in unanticipated harmful effects, and because genetically engineered foods are not tested sufficiently, this experiment not only jeopardizes the health of individuals, but could also lead to global food shortages and extensive ecological hazards. Due to genetically modified food's unique and unknown nature, there is potential for adverse health side effects. It is impossible to predict the impact of genetic food, it is a matter of waiting for and observing future consequences. The cross-species transfers being made, such as between fish and tomatoes, would not happen in nature and may create new toxins, diseases, and weaknesses. An example of a possible health detrimental effect is resistance to widely used antibiotics. A new type of maize is currently being produced in the UK. Maize is attacked by the corn borer mite, that chews through the stalks. Genetically modified maize has been produced to be repellent to the mite. The marker gene in the new maize is resistant to ampicllin, an antibiotic. Scientists are concerned that when this maize is eaten, the gene will come in contact and be passed to bacteria living in the human gut. These bacteria would then be resistant to the antibiotic. There is only a slight chance of this occurring, but there is always a first time. Transferring animal genes into plants also raises important ethical issues for vegetarians and religious groups. It may also involve animal experiments that are unacceptable to many people. Once a genetically modified organism has been released into the environment it can reproduce, move and even mutate. After its release, it cannot be recalled. Unlike chemical or nuclear contamination, genetic pollution is perpetual. It can never be reversed or cleaned up; genetic mistakes will be passed on to all future generations of a species. The huge areas of genetically identical crops will influence the evolution of local pests, plants, wildlife, and disrupt surrounding ecosystems. There is no way of stoping genetically engineered plants from breeding with wild plants and contaminating them with foreign DNA strains. Pollen from genetically engineered crops can be transferred to cultivated and wild plants up to a mile away. What would happen if the genes for insect and weed killer resistance, that have been introduced to crop plants, found their

Ebola: A Deadly Virus

1999-08-24T14:00:00-04:00
Life is a biological internet in which viruses travel like messages, moving at high speed from node to node and from city to city. They are diverse and wild spread in every plane on the surface of the earth. Ironically, such invisible creatures have a substantially enormous effects on human life and health. In most cases, Viruses are harmful and sometimes deadly. One of these deadly viruses is the Ebola virus, a highly contagious, deadly and mysterious microbe, known to be the most lethal virus known to human kind that have caused many devastation. The mere essence of their existence is not to cause harm, they are living organisms who want to reproduce and spread with the help of a host. The Ebola virus, like most viruses, consists of a shell of proteins surrounding genetic material, like RNA and DNA. Once inside the cell, the virus gets hold to the host cell and the virus may enter the cell as it injects its genetic material into the host cell. The virus then uses the host cell's machinery to replicate themselves and make new copies of itself. Each new copy of the virus directs the host cell to make it a protein shell. The new viruses leave the host cell to other cells and repeat the same process over and over again. Although man is not Ebola's natural host, the virus infects people, and the adventure is suicidal as the infected victims struggle with the symptoms The infected victim staggers, disoriented and exhausted, and collapses in a fever, which is known as the Haemorrhagic fever. The fever is characterized by weakness, muscle pain, headache and sore throat. The victim's eyes turn bright red, and starts vomiting blood. The tongue peels, and the heart muscle becomes soft. Scientists believe that when the victim get in contact with the virus, the virus first triggers a combination of blood clots and hemorrhages. The patient's bloodstream throws clots, and the clots lodge everywhere, especially in the spleen, liver, and brain, then it settle in the victim throat. Bleeding involves the nose, abdomen, and pericardium. Capillary leakage appears to lead to loss of interavascular volume leading the patient to fall in a shock and acute respiratory disorder leaving the patient desperately trying to gasp their breath. The virus kills its victims so quickly, before it even can infect others. The incubation period for the Ebola virus ranges from

Smoking and Tobacco

1999-08-24T14:00:00-04:00
Tobacco Tobacco comes from the tobacco plant, nicotiana tobacum. Leaves of the plant may be smoked, inhaled in form of snuff, or chewed. Tobacco smoke contains about 4000 chemicals. Many of them (nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide) are very harmful. Effects of Smoking Nicotine is a stimulant (substance that speeds up body activities) which increases the heartbeat and raises blood pressure. Nicotine causes the arteries to narrow, which places stress on the circulatory system. Cigarette smoke contains many tiny particles. When they form a sticky brown substance called tobacco tar. Tar builds up in the lungs of a smoker. Carbon Monoxide is a poisonous gas in cigarette smoke. When inhaled, it replaces some of the oxygen that is carried by red blood cells. This makes the heart work harder. Smoking and the Circulatory System Smokers are most likely to die of heart disease. Smoking is linked to the formation of blood clots in the arteries. If blood supply to heart is interrupted, a stroke occurs. Smoking and The Respiratory System Smoking slows the cilia (tiny hair-like projections) in the nasal passages down. Poisonous substances are then able to spread over the linings of the air passages. Smokers are more prone to

Neptune

1999-08-22T14:00:00-04:00

The physical makeup of Neptune is very gaseous, it consists mainly of hydrogen and helium but about 2.5-3% of the planet is methane.
The Voyager2 spacecraft reached Neptune in 1989 and observed a dark storm system with a bright core of feathery clouds. Wind speeds on Neptune reach 325 meters per a sec (700 mph), moving in a retrograde direction that is opposite to the direction of its rotation. These are the strongest retrograde winds seen on

Application Of Magnets For Levitation

1999-08-21T14:00:00-04:00
In ancient times men knew of a special kind of rock that could pull other rocks of the same kind and pieces of iron toward themselves. Such rocks were called lodestones. Today man uses the same force exerted by electromagnets and permanent magnets to provide magnetic aide to trains and more efficient power generators. This report will focus on the use of magnets in the generation of electricity and magnetically aided trains. Magnetism is defined as the force exerted by a magnetic field. A magnetic field is defined as the energy exerted by the magnet. It is caused by the alignment of the domains (sub-atomic particles) of an object. When the domains are lined up they produce magnetism. When the domains are not lined up then they cause the object to be demagnetized (having no magnetic power). Materials such as air, wood, copper, and water do not respond to the power of magnets. We then ask "Why and how is it possible to make a magnet out of copper." Good question, and simple answer. Copper becomes magnetic when an electric current is run through it while spiraled around a magnet. Thus it is called an electromagnet. The following facts are to state the properties of magnetic force: 1. If free to rotate, permanent magnets point approximately north-south. 2. Similar poles repel, dissimilar poles attract. 3. Permanent magnets only attract objects with domains. 4. Magnetic forces act at a distance, moreover through nonmagnetic barriers. 5. Things attracted to permanent magnets (other than permanent magnets) also become temporary magnets. 6. A coil of wire with an electric current flowing through it becomes an electromagnet. 7. Putting iron inside the coil greatly increases the strength of an electromagnet. 8.Changing magnetic fields induce electric currents in copper and other conductors. Some people like to talk about animal magnetism as a metaphor. Most people do not know that it actually exists. There are very weak magnetic fields around Homo-sapiens. The field can be detected by the Superconducting QUantum Interference Device (SQUID). Magnets play a key role in the generation of electricity. Figure two below illustrates magnets in a generator. In order to produce electricity either the loop or the magnets must be rotated relative to one another. The energy for this rotation can be provided by a variety of sources. One source is water which can be converted to steam, and is then used to drive turbines that operate generators. The energy to boil the

Hemp - Miracle Plant

1999-07-02T14:00:00-04:00
Is there a single plant that could possibly save the world? Because of its vigor and adaptability, it was amongst the first plants to be cultivated by humans and has been used and grown by many cultures for thousands of years. Yet, today people are fined, even jailed for growing this plant because it is illegal. Lawmakers fail to see that this sole plant probably has more uses than any other material on earth. The entire plant can be utilized for over 25,000 applications. To begin, the seed is nature's perfect food. It can be ground into a meal or can be sprouted and used like other beans and seeds. In addition to the oil from the seeds have the highest percentage of essential fatty acids and the lowest percentage of saturated fats. It is also a complete source of protein and can be served as a meal in itself. Second, byproducts from the plant are an excellent source building material. It has 4 times the cellular fiber than trees, making it perfect for pressed board, particle board and concrete framework. It is longer lasting and more flexible than currently used materials. In comparison, trees take 20 years to mature while this plant only takes 4 months. Correspondingly, 1 acre of this plant produces as much as 4 acres of trees. Third, paper that is made from this plant is stronger, more water-resistant than wood pulp, is less likely to tear and is 7 times more recyclable than wood. It also uses a fraction of the dangerous chemicals used in processing wood pulp. Fiber is a fourth use. A cloth made from this plant is softer and warmer than cotton and is 6 times as strong. In addition to, the cloth is much more resistant to weathering and wear. Moving on to the fifth use, medically, a derivative of this plant has recently been proven to relieve nausea in AIDS and cancer therapy. It has been used with success in treating glaucoma, asthma, epilepsy, mood disorders, and arthritis. It increases appetite, promotes sleep and relaxation, and relieves stress and migraines. Most importantly, fossil fuels could stay in the ground. The plant produces far more and safer chemical compounds suitable for conversion to methane than any other plant. This renewable fuel contains no sulfur and while growing helps remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere via photosynthesis. For thousands of years, all good

Air pollution

1999-06-05T14:00:00-04:00
Introduction With the great concern surrounding the destruction of the earth's atmosphere due to air pollution, the immediate and direct harm caused to the human body is often over shadowed. While many are aware that our careless use of hazardous chemicals and fossil fuels may leave the planet uninhabitable in the future, most over look the fact that they are also cause real damage to our bodies at this moment. Such pollutants cause damage to our respiratory system, leading to the fluctuation of the life span of an individual depending on a number of conditions. Amongst these conditions are the individuals specific geographic location, age, and life style. This paper is structured as a series of relevant questions and answers to report on the description of these pollutants there affects on our bodies. What are the pollutants? And how do they affect our bodies? In order to understand how air pollution affects our body, you must under stand exactly what this pollution is. The pollutants that harm our respiratory system are known as particulates. Particulates are the small solid particles that you can see through a ray of sunlight. They are products of incomplete combustion in engines (example: automobile engines), road dust, and wood smoke. Billions of tons of coal and oil are consumed around the world every year. When these fuels burn they produce smoke and other by-products into the atmosphere. Although wind and rain occasionally wash away the smoke given off by power plants and automobiles, much still remains. Particulate matter (soot, ash, and other solids), usually consist of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, various nitrogen oxides, ozone, and lead. These compounds undergo a series of chemical reactions in the presence of sunlight, the result is smog (a term used to describe a noxious mixture of fog and smoke) The process by which these pollutants harm our bodies begins by simply taking a breath. Particulates are present every where, in some areas they are as dense as 100,000 per milliliter of air. The damage begins when the particulates are inhaled into the small air sacs of our lungs called alveoli. With densities such as 100,000 per milliliter a single alveolus may receive 1,500 particulates per day. These particulates cause the inflammation of the alveoli. The inflammation causes the body to produce agents in the blood that in crease clotting ability, which leads to the decreased functionality of the cardiovascular system,

Autism

1999-06-05T14:00:00-04:00
Autism is a developmental disability of the brain, much like dyslexia or attention deficit disorder. Autism is not a form of mental retardation, and though many autistic people act like they are retarded, but a lot of times they are very intelligent. The Autism society of America quotes "autism...occurs in approximately 15 of every 10,000 individuals and nearly 400,000 people in the U.S. today have some form of autism." The sympots of autism may vary from person to person. Autism is called a spectrum disorder because the symptoms range severity across

Giant Panda

1999-05-20T14:00:00-04:00

What animal is black and white and loved all over the world? If you guessed the giant panda, you're right! The giant panda is also known as the panda bear, bamboo bear, or in Chinese as Daxiongmao, the "large bear cat." Actually, its scientific name means "black and white cat-footed animal."
Giant pandas are found only in the mountains of central China. They live in dense bamboo and coniferous forests at altitudes of 5,000 to 10,000 feet. The mountains are covered in heavy clouds with torrential rains or dense mist throughout the year.
Giant pandas are bear-like in shape with striking black and white markings. The ears, eye patches, legs, and shoulder band are black. The rest of the body is whitish. Adults are 4 to 6 feet long and may weigh up to 350 pounds, about the same size as the American black bear. However, unlike the black bear, giant pandas do not hibernate and cannot walk on their hind legs.
The giant panda has unique front paws-one of the wrist bones is enlarged and elongated and is used like a thumb, enabling the giant panda to grasp stalks of bamboo. They also have very powerful jaws and teeth to crush bamboo. While bamboo stalks and roots make up about 95 percent of its diet, the giant panda also feeds on fish and occasionally small rodents. It must eat 20 to 40 pounds of food each day to survive, and spends 10 to 16 hours a day feeding.
Until recently, Washington DC's National Zoo housed Ling-Ling and Hsing-Hsing, perhaps the most well known giant pandas in North America. A gift from China to the people of the United States, they were presented as a gesture of amity and goodwill to President Richard Nixon when he visited China in 1972. Ling-Ling, at age 23, died in December 1992.
Giant pandas are among the rarest mammals in the world. There are probably less than 1,000 left in the wild. Although adult giant pandas have few natural enemies, the young are sometimes preyed upon by leopards.
Habitat encroachment and destruction are the greatest threats to the continued existence of the giant panda. This is mainly because of the demand for land and natural resources by China's 1 billion inhabitants. To offset this situation, the Chinese government has set aside 11 nature preserves where bamboo flourishes and giant pandas are known to live.

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

1999-05-09T14:00:00-04:00
The so-called 'narcissistic personality disorder' is a complex and often misunderstood disorder. The cardinal feature of the narcissistic personality is the grandiose sense of self-importance, but paradoxically underneath this grandiosity the narcissist suffers from a chronically fragile low self-esteem. The grandiosity of the narcissist, however, is often so pervasive that we tend to dehumanize him or her. The narcissist conjures in us images of the mythological character Narcissus who could only love himself, rebuffing anyone who attempted to touch him. Nevertheless, it is the underlying sense of inferiority, which is the real problem of the narcissist; the grandiosity is just a facade used to cover the deep feelings of inadequacy. The Makeup of the Narcissistic Personality The narcissist's grandiose behavior is designed to reaffirm his or her sense of adequacy. Since the narcissist is incapable of asserting his or her own sense of adequacy, the narcissist seeks to be admired by others. However, the narcissist's extremely fragile sense of self worth does not allow him or her to risk any criticism. Therefore, meaningful emotional interactions with others are avoided. By simultaneously seeking the admiration of others and keeping them at a distance the narcissist is usually able to maintain the illusion of grandiosity no matter how people respond. Thus, when people praise the narcissist his or her grandiosity will increase, but when criticized the grandiosity will usually remain unaffected because the narcissist will devalue the criticizing person. Akhtar (1989) [as cited in Carson & Butcher, 1992; P. 271] discusses six areas of pathological functioning which characterize the narcissist. In particular, four of these narcissistic character traits best illustrate the pattern discussed above. " (1) A narcissistic individual has a basic sense of inferiority, which underlies a preoccupation with fantasies of outstanding achievement; (2) a narcissistic individual is unable to trust and rely on others and thus develops numerous, shallow relationships to extract tributes from others; (3) A narcissistic individual has a shifting morality-always ready to shift values to gain favor; and (4) a narcissistic person is unable to remain in love, showing an impaired capacity for a committed relationship". The Therapeutic Essence of Treating Narcissism The narcissist who enters therapy does not think that there is something wrong with him or her. Typically, the narcissist seeks therapy because he or she is unable to maintain the grandiosity, which protects him or her from the feelings of despair. The

Ameba Information

1999-04-08T14:00:00-04:00
Scientific name - Kingdom- Protista, Phylum- Saccoina, Class- Rhizopodea, Order- Amoebida, Family- N\A, Genus- Ameba, Species- proteus Description - Amebas are one of the simplest organisms with animal characteristics. They consist of a single cell that is only about one hundredth of an inch long and it can only be seen through a microscope. The ameba's body is shapeless and is a jelly like mass of material called protoplasm. Its cytoplasm is transparent. The central area is called the endoplasm and it contains the nucleus. The endoplasm also contains contractile vacuoles, which look like clear bubbles. They move by amoeboid motion. Which is where the ameba expands and contracts it pseudopodia, or bulges in the ameba's body, in regular intervals. The rest of the body flows with the pseudopodia. Habitat - Ameba live in most types of fresh

Dandelion Information

1999-04-08T14:00:00-04:00
Scientific name -Kingdom-Plantea, Phylum- Tracheophyta, Class- Angiospermae, Order- Asterales, Family- Asteraceca, Genus- Taraxacum, Species- officiale Description - The Taraxacum officiale is a perennial herb that grows from two to eighteen inches tall they are a stem less plant

Nostoc Information

1999-04-08T14:00:00-04:00
Scientific name - Kingdom- Monera, Phylum- Cyanobacteria, Class- N\A, Order- nostocaler, Family- Nostocaceae, Genus- Nostoc, Species- caeruleum Description- Nostoc is a one celled autotrophic organism that performs

Yeast Information

1999-04-08T14:00:00-04:00
Scientific name -Kingdom- Fungi, Phylum- Ascomycota Class- Ascomycetes Order- Saccharomycetaler, Family- Saccharomycetaceae, Genus- Saccharomyces, Species- Cervisiae Description - Yeast is a unicellular organism that lacks chloroplasts. They are so small that it can't be seen by the naked eye and they are so small that it would take 4000 of them lined up side by side to measure an inch. Habitat - Yeast lives on and is nourished by dead or

The Grey Wolf

1999-04-08T14:00:00-04:00
Scientific name -Kingdom-Animalia, Phylum- Chordate, Class- Mammilla, Order- Carnivorous, Family- Canida, Genus- Canis, Species- lupus Description -Canis lupus's' height ranges from about 21-38 inches and three and a half feet long. Their weight ranges from 20 -172 pounds. It is one of the largest wolves in the world. They also range in color from pure white to near black. The gray wolves are a very intelligent animal and they learn quickly to avoid humans and there trap's. Grey wolves have a keen sense of smell, acute

Bipolar Disorder

1999-04-02T14:00:00-04:00
The phenomenon of bipolar affective disorder has been a mystery since the 16th century. History has shown that this affliction can appear in almost anyone. Even the great painter Vincent Van Gogh is believed to have had bipolar disorder. It is clear that in our society many people live with bipolar disorder; however, despite the abundance of people suffering from the it, we are still waiting for definite explanations for the causes and cure. The one fact of which we are painfully aware is that bipolar disorder severely undermines its' victims ability to obtain and maintain social and occupational success. Because bipolar disorder has such debilitating symptoms, it is imperative that we remain vigilant in the quest for explanations of its causes and treatment. Affective disorders are characterized by a smorgasbord of symptoms that can be broken into manic and depressive episodes. The depressive episodes are characterized by intense feelings of sadness and despair that can become feelings of hopelessness and helplessness. Some of the symptoms of a depressive episode include anhedonia, disturbances in sleep and appetite, psycomoter retardation, loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, guilt, difficulty thinking, indecision, and recurrent thoughts of death and suicide (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). The manic episodes are characterized by elevated or irritable mood, increased energy, decreased need for sleep, poor judgment and insight, and often reckless or irresponsible behavior (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). Bipolar affective disorder affects approximately one percent of the population (approximately three million people) in the United States. It is presented by both males and females. Bipolar disorder involves episodes of mania and depression. These episodes may alternate with profound depressions characterized by a pervasive sadness, almost inability to move, hopelessness, and disturbances in appetite, sleep, in concentrations and driving. Bipolar disorder is diagnosed if an episode of mania occurs whether depression has been diagnosed or not (Goodwin, Guze, 1989, p 11). Most commonly, individuals with manic episodes experience a period of depression. Symptoms include elated, expansive, or irritable mood, hyperactivity, pressure of speech, flight of ideas, inflated self esteem, decreased need for sleep, distractibility, and excessive involvement in reckless activities (Hollandsworth, Jr. 1990 ). Rarest symptoms were periods of loss of all interest and retardation or agitation (Weisman, 1991). As the National Depressive and Manic Depressive Association (MDMDA) has demonstrated, bipolar disorder can create substantial developmental delays, marital and family disruptions, occupational setbacks, and financial disasters. This devastating disease causes disruptions

Do Men have Symptoms of PMS?

1999-04-02T14:00:00-04:00
The meaning of premenstrual, according to Webster's Dictionary, is: "occurring before a menstrual period." Men do not have menstrual cycles, since they do not have uteri. A uterus is required for menses. Does the possibility exist that men have the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS)? Can the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome be associated with the male species? Due to the numerous symptoms associated with PMS, this essay deals with the symptoms of: irritability and stress, food cravings and weight gain, headaches . Just mentioing PMS makes some people irritable. How people express their irritability differs from each person. Some people express their irritable mood with body language. Such as, when a person throws his or her hands up in the air, and says, "touch me and die," this is a good indication that they are irritable. Most people's personalities control how they react to anger. Most people's personalities differ. Some people feel hostile, while others just show hostility. Most men say, "that they are just stressed out." Most men think that when women get stressed out, it is due to a hormone-imbalance due to PMS. Some people get food cravings when their hormones are imbalanced. Hormones control when people feel get cravings. Most people crave certain foods. Whether, the chocolate melts in their hands, the toppings are piled on the pizza, or they feel the need to lick the inside of the potato chip bag; people get cravings. Cravings can influence a person's diet. Some people eat healthy foods and exercise. They control their craving and eating habits. Other people give in to their bodies natural cravings. Some men use the excuse that they have a "sweet tooth" when they have a craving. But, most men say that when some women eat "they are stuffing their mouths." If a person does not exercise enough, and gives into too many cravings, they can get overweight. With ninety percent of the American adult population overweight; a lot of people are giving in to their cravings. Some people substitute food for affection. Others eat just because they are bored. Some people eat when they get depressed. Most people get depressed at some point in their lives. Hormone-imbalances can cause depression. Depression happens to some people when they have PMS. Hormones get released by certain hormone-producing glands into the body. The brain uses these hormones to dictate what

Computers

1999-04-02T14:00:00-04:00
This paper is about the computer. Today computers are used by hundreds of millions of people. There have been many advances in the computer. The computer used to weigh 30 tons and filled warehouse size rooms, but today can be as light as 3 pounds and fit in a persons pocket. There were basically three times the computer was mentioned. One as a mechanical computing device, in about 500 BC The other as a concept in 1833, and the third as the modern day computer in 1946. The first mechanical calculator was called the abacus. The abacus is a is a string of moving beads. The first concept of the modern computer was first outlined in 1833 by the British mathematician Charles Babbage. His outline contained all of todays features in a computer today. Those features are memory, a control unit, and output devices. Even though Babbage worked on the machine for over 40 years he never actual saw it work. The modern computer grew out of intense research efforts mounted during World War II. The military needed faster ballistics calculators, and British cryptographers needed machines to help break the German secret codes. Early as the 1940's the German Inventor, Konrad Zuse, produced the first operational computer. It was used in aircraft and missile designs, but the German government would not let him improve the machine so it never reached its maximum capability. Two engineers called John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert Jr. from the University of Pennsylvania constructed a calculator. Its construction was an enormous feat of engineering. The 30-ton machine was 18 feet high and 80 feet long, and contained 17,468 vacuum tubes linked by 500 miles of wiring. This calculator performed 100,000 operations per second, and its first operational test included calculations that helped determine the feasibility of the hydrogen bomb. Computers were finally made to a smaller size in 1958 by Jack Kilby. He used less expensive silicon chips, this made it possible to cram as many as 10 million components on 1 chip. Another big step in the computer chip was made by American Engineer Marcian E. Hoff. He combined the uses of a computer into 1 tiny silicon chip which he called the microprocessor. This microprocessor was called the Intel 4004. By the mid 1970's the microprocessor or microchip reduced the cost of computers. The first affordable desktop computer designed specifically for personal use was called

Beta Particles

1999-03-16T13:00:00-04:00
Aim: I will investigate how the field strength varies the deflection of Beta Particles. Preliminary Work I started my preliminary work because, when I started my measurements using 2 coils used in experiments to deflect electrons from and electron gun. While testing for the deflection of beta particles, I found that beta radiation was scattered in a very large cone, I can not get any readings with amount of beta radiation scattering. So I would have to construct some type of shielding for this investigation, this is so I can measure the deflection more easily. The angle at which the beta particles are being scattered is 48o. Deciding on the Type of Shielding I will test for the best shielding. The best properties of the shield will be; it can be malleable to form different shapes and can be punctured, can stop radiation at a small thickness. Equipment
Strontium 90 beta source
GM tube + counter
Different thickness of different metals
Clamps, bosses and clamp stand to hold the source and the material being tested. Method 1. Set-up equipment as in the diagram 2. Record the thickness and the material being used. 3. Record 5 readings of the radiation count, and record them in a table 4. Replace material being tested with different material or a different sized material. 5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 as required. Results The background radiation reading is 2, 4, 6, 4, 5, 2. The average count is 3.8 (1dp). Conclusion This shows that aluminium stops radiation at 3.5 mm, this would be difficult to use because, this thickness of Aluminium is not malleable and the aluminium is not soft enough to puncture. Lead can stop radiation at very thin thickness', also lead is very malleable and is soft enough to puncture. I will use Lead shield at 0.6mm thick, since it is the most abundant thickness' available and it is the easiest to form to any shape I want. Deciding how the shielding can be used. I want to have a tight beam of beta particles in this investigation, so I will use my knowledge on what would be the best way to shield the source. An unshielded source The source is unshielded and has beta particles spreading out. Angle Theta is the angle which the beta particles are scattered through. The path of the beta particles is not a straight line, but a curve because the beta particle are deflected by the moles in the air. The points A B are the furthest points where beta ration is

Black Holes

1999-02-26T13:00:00-05:00
Everyday we look out upon the night sky, wondering and dreaming of what lies beyond our planet. The universe that we live in is so diverse and unique, and it interests us to learn about all the variance that lies beyond our grasp. Within this marvel of wonders our universe holds a mystery that is very difficult to understand because of the complications that arise when trying to examine and explore the principles of space. That mystery happens to be that of the ever clandestine, black hole. This essay will hopefully give you the knowledge and understanding of the concepts, properties, and processes involved with the space phenomenon of the black hole. It will describe how a black hole is generally formed, how it functions, and the effects it has on the universe. In order to understand what exactly a black hole is, we must first take a look at the basis for the cause of a black hole. All black holes are formed from the gravitational collapse of a star, usually having a great, massive, core. A star is created when huge, gigantic, gas clouds bind together due to attractive forces and form a hot core, combined from all the energy of the two gas clouds. This energy produced is so great when it first collides, that a nuclear reaction occurs and the gases within the star start to burn continuously. The Hydrogen gas is usually the first type of gas consumed in a star and then other gas elements such as Carbon, Oxygen, and Helium are consumed. This chain reaction fuels the star for millions or billions of years depending upon the amount of gases there are. The star manages to avoid collapsing at this point because of the equilibrium achieved by itself. The gravitational pull from the core of the star is equal to the gravitational pull of the gases forming a type of orbit, however when this equality is broken the star can go into several different stages. Usually if the star is small in mass, most of the gases will be consumed while some of it escapes. This occurs because there is not a tremendous gravitational pull upon those gases and therefore the star weakens and becomes smaller. It is then referred to as a White Dwarf. If the star was to have a larger mass however, then it may possibly Supernova, meaning that the nuclear fusion within the star

Amputee Fittness

1999-02-26T13:00:00-05:00
The new advancements in prosthetics have allowed amputees and people born without limbs to participate in many activities.

Prostate Cancer

1999-02-26T13:00:00-05:00
History of the Prostate Gland The prostate is a gland that is located just underneath the bladder. It surrounds the urethra through which a man urinates. The prostate gland is therefore vital to proper bladder control and urine flow-rate. The prostate is also essential for normal sexual function. It is the gland of ejaculation, supplying 95% of the seminal fluid and the power to push it through the urethra and out of the penis. The normal prostate in an adult man is about the size of a walnut. Its size often increases over time, however, particularly once a man gets beyond age 40. Because the urethra runs right through the middle of it, a growth spurt of the prostate will squeeze the urethra and begin to choke off the urinary flow. This can effect the ability to urinate and perform sexually. Symptoms of Prostate Cancer Prostate cancer occurs when some of the cells that make up the prostate gland escape from the normal controls on their growth and start to divide, grow and spread in an uncontolled manner. At first the growth of the cancer occurs very slowly and is usually limited within the prostate gland. Later on in the course of the illness, the prostate gland cells can spread around the body, particulary to the bones where they can paues pain and disability. Estimates show that the cancer may have been growing in some men for up to 10 yearsbefore it causes symptoms and is diagnosed. Some men develop symptoms whereas others do not. In those who that do, the following symptoms are commonly found: Bathroom Troubles:
Need to urinate frequently, especially at night
Sudden, incontrolable urges to urinate
Weak or interrupted urine flow A burning sensation or pain when urinating
Blood in urine
Continuing pain in lower back, pelvis, or upper thighs Bedroom Troubles:
Reduced sexual ability
Painful orgasm
Impotence
Discomfort during intercourse There appears to be several forms of prostate cancer. Some men survive for many years with the disease and never develop symptoms. These men may be oblivious to the fact that they have a slow growing from prostate cancer and may eventually die of other causes. However, other prostate cancers can be more aggressive and can grow quickly. Prevention and Treatment More and more doctors are coming to believe that an enlarged prostate can be treated or deterred by feeding the body the nutrients it lacks. Dr. James Balch, specialist in urology, says: "The pain

Growth and Development in Babies

1999-02-26T13:00:00-05:00
Babies grow and develop at a very rapid rate during the first year of life. They grow physically, mentally, emotionally and socially. However, through this portfolio, I intend to discuss the physical growth and development patterns of the infant through their first year. To begin with, development refers to the baby's increased skill in using various body parts. When dealing with the development of a child there are three basic developmental rules. First Developmental Rule: This rule states that babies develop in the head region first, then the trunk, and lastly in the legs and feet. Therefore, it is said that babies develop in a head-to-toe direction or cephalocaudally. For example, a baby can hold up their head before they can grasp an object with their hand. Also, they can feed themself before they can walk. Second Developmental Rule: The second rule explains that children develop from the midline, or centre of the body, outward toward the fingers and toes. This stage or rule is the one which affects the development of motor skills. Motor skills are the child's ability to control movement. There are two basic classifications of motor skills, gross motor skills and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills are those which involve the large muscles. Whereas, fine motor skills are those involving the smaller muscle groups. For example, a child can grasp a big ball in their arms before they can catch a baseball in their hands. The fine skills of hands and feet are the last to develop. Third Developmental Rule: Finally, this rule reveals that, as the brain develops, a child responds to more and more sights and sounds in their environment. Furthermore, they learn to respond to much finer details. The Baby's Body In this section, you will find specific break-downs of the baby's body parts. I decided to do this to show how the baby grows and develops in each area of their body. Also, you will see how these developing body parts affect the developing motor skills of the child. The following areas will be discussed, their size and weight, the head, brain, eyes, ears, arms and hands and finally, the legs and feet and the trunk. Size and Weight The average baby is 20 inches long at birth, or 50.8cm. However, not all babies are born the same length, generally, lengths vary from 18-21.5 inches or 45.7-54.6 centimetres. The average baby weighs 7.5 pounds at birth, or 3.4 kilograms. Typically, the range is

Bronchitis

1999-02-26T13:00:00-05:00
Bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchi. It may develop suddenly, following a head cold (acute bronchitis), or it may persist or return regularly for many years, causing progressive degeneration of the bronchi and lungs (chronic bronchitis). Certain people are more susceptible than others; Men are more of a target to bronchitis than women, out numbering them 10 to 1 -- the reasons are unclear. Of course smokers are 50 times more likely to get chronic bronchitis than non-smokers. Acute bronchitis is a bacteria or virus infection, often following a cold smoking. People who have acute bronchitis usually have a mild fever, soreness under breast bone, irritated by coughing. First they have a dry cough then the cough later brings up green and yellow mucus. The cough may persist to 4 to 6 weeks. Chronic bronchitis is produced by other chronic problem: sinusitis, smoking, TB, etc. The Bronchi becomes thick, inelastic, and accumulate mucus and pus in lower part of lungs instead of bringing discharges up and out. The result is chronic cough, shortness of breath, sometimes spasm, and frequent infection. Symptoms In acute bronchitis, the basic symptoms are a head cold, fever and chills, running nose, aching muscles and possibly back pains. This is soon followed by the obvious persistent cough. At first the cough is dry and racking and eventually becomes phlegmy. The persistent cough is worse at night than during the day, and when the person breathes in smoke and fumes. The main symptoms most recognized in chronic bronchitis is, again, a cough, with sputum, often occurring in paroxysms. Other symptoms in chronic bronchitis are dependant on how much, or how little, emphysema is present. This disorder causes the lungs to become overstretched, making the breathing process difficult. The chronic bronchitic with no emphysema tends to be overweight and often has a bluish tinge to his or her lips due to lack of oxygen. Shortness of breath only occurs during exercise and other strenuous activity. The bronchitic with a great deal of emphysema, who has lost a lot of his or her oxygen-exchanging ability, due to the condition, is short of breath at all times. The bronchitic with emphysema very often are underweight and, as the disease comes worse, develops a barrel chest. The Chronic bronchitic also wheezes because of the obstruction. NOTE: Emphysema is a state of overdistention of the tiny air-containing sacs of the lung. Causes The cause of bronchitis are from

Newton's Three Laws of Motion

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Isaac Newton was born on Christmas day in 1642, in Lincolnshire, England. Newton attended Trinity College in 1661 and had both his Bachelor of Arts and his Master of Arts by 1669. That same year he became the associate of the French Academy of Sciences. He was elected to Parilment, then appointed a warden, and finally, President of the Royal Society. Newton was a master of science and mathematics. He discovered calculus, before Leibniz' became popular.

Carbohydrates

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Introduction: Carbohydrates are molecules that contain Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. The most basic sugar- carbohydrate is the monosaccharide. Carbohydrate molecules are categorized by the number of carbons present in the molecule. Glucose, the most common monosaccharide has six carbons per molecule, which is called a hexose. Carbohydrates also have a 2:1 hydrogen to oxygen ratio. This aids in the condensation and hydrolysis reactions. A condensation reaction occurs when two monosaccharides join by the removal of H2O. During condensation synthesis one monosaccharide losses an OH and the other losses a H. As a result the two monosaccharides bond by forming maltose a disaccharide with a by-product of a free H2O. When three or more monosaccharides or monomer are involved in a condensation synthesis a polymer or polysaccharide is formed with a by product of water. Starch and Glycogen are two common chain polymers. Just as the removal of water joins carbohydrates together via condensation synthesis, hydrolysis is the reaction using water to break apart Di and polysaccharide. A Di-saccharide is bound by sharing an oxygen with one hydrogen on each opposing side. When H2O is re-introduced via hydrolysis the two monomers in the disaccharide no longer need to share one H2O, and as a result the opposing sides absorb the OH and H and break apart. This reaction is a common theme in the digestion of complex carbohydrates. Experiment 3: Test for Sugars We will test five different solutions for presence or absence of reducing sugars using a premixed Benedict's reagent. These dependent variable solutions will be water, glucose , onion juice, potato juice, and starch suspension. When the Benidict's reagent is combined with sugars at a boiling temperature, a color reaction will occur. Our independent variable, Benidict's reagent color is blue. The negative control will be the combination of water and Benidict's reagent. This sample will undergo all the steps of the test except for the one being tested for i.e. sugars. If the end result is negative color change (blue) , it will thus be determined that the experiment and the Benidict's reagent is not contaminated and the experiment may proceed. The negative control will also serve as a comparison to gauge against the color change in the other four sugar tests. EXPERIMENT 3: Test for Sugars: TESTS MAT. & METHODS HYPOTHESIS RESULTS Tube 1 1cm water+2cm Benidict's reagent. No color change Negative control no color change. Neg-sugar. Blue Tube 2 1cm glucose solution+ 2cm Benidict's reagent. Boil

The Big Bang Theory

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
It is always a mystery about how the universe began, whether if and when it will end. Astronomers construct hypotheses called cosmological models that try to find the answer. There are two types of models: Big Bang and Steady State. However, through many observational evidences, the Big Bang theory can best explain the creation of the universe. The Big Bang model postulates that about 15 to 20 billion years ago, the universe violently exploded into being, in an event called the Big Bang. Before the Big Bang, all of the matter and radiation of our present universe were packed together in the primeval fireball-an extremely hot dense state from which the universe rapidly expanded.¹ The Big Bang was the start of time and space. The matter and radiation of that early stage rapidly expanded and cooled. Several million years later, it condensed into galaxies. The universe has continued to expand, and the galaxies have continued moving away from each other ever since. Today the universe is still expanding, as astronomers have observed. The Steady State model says that the universe does not evolve or change in time. There was no beginning in the past, nor will there be change in the future. This model assumes the perfect cosmological principle. This principle says that the universe is the same everywhere on the large scale, at all times.² It maintains the same average density of matter forever. There are observational evidences found that can prove the Big Bang model is more reasonable than the Steady State model. First, the redshifts of distant galaxies. Redshift is a Doppler effect which states that if a galaxy is moving away, the spectral line of that galaxy observed will have a shift to the red end. The faster the galaxy moves, the more shift it has. If the galaxy is moving closer, the spectral line will show a blue shift. If the galaxy is not moving, there is no shift at all. However, as astronomers observed, the more distance a galaxy is located from Earth, the more redshift it shows on the spectrum. This means the further a galaxy is, the faster it moves. Therefore, the universe is expanding, and the Big Bang model seems more reasonable than the Steady State model. The second observational evidence is the radiation produced by the Big Bang. The Big Bang model predicts that the universe should still be filled with a

The Armadillo

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The Armadillo is a very different creature. It has tremendous claws, but no fighting instinct. They have teeth, but not in front, except for the milk teeth some have during infancy. They have long tongues because they catch insects. A strange thing which these animals have is a coat armor, unique among other animals. They have bony plate armor on the outside of their bodies'. Each species has a different pattern for every little plate they carry. They all are great burrowers. They sink a hole with them in it as one approaches. It takes a good man to haul even a little one back if it is halfway down it's retreat under the ground. They are active, running with a tiptoe trot. Their trot is as an aged pony that is tired. They have a varied diet. They hunt by night. Today's Armadillos are not the biggest armadillos that have ever existed. The soil of South America is full of larger Armadillo bones from the past. Some of the past bones were as much as sixteen feet long including the tail. Some even migrated to Texas. There are several species of these animals. The Six-banded Armadillos were good burrowers and massive devourers of insects. They also ate vegetable matter and were useful for devouring carrion. One specie called the Peludo was clumsy bet was effective in getting a snake to its armored hide and grinding the life out of it. It then eats the snake not effected by the poison. The king of the tribe is the Great Armadillo. It is a big creature in appearance, a yard in length from nose to tail covered with the armor. It even has armor on its legs. Its claws are very long and awfully strong. The Three- banded Armadillos had a further protection. They are able to curl up like a hedgehog and present an impenetrable ball to an enemy. It is similar than that of a hedgehog or the porcupine, but it is more interesting because of the way they fit themselves into their armor. Their head and tail pass perfectly through openings in the upper surface of the armor. These openings are bony doors. The back of a typical Glyptodon was covered with a solid piece of bony armor. The tail looked like a bunch of bony rings. The backbone was solid except at the neck. At the neck, there is a joint

Anti-Matter

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Introduction Ordinary matter has negatively charged electrons circling a positively charged nuclei. Anti-matter has positively charged electrons - positrons - orbiting a nuclei with a negative charge - anti-protons. Only anti-protons and positrons are able to be produced at this time, but scientists in Switzerland have begun a series of experiments which they believe will lead to the creation of the first anti-matter element-Anti- Hydrogen. The Research Early scientists often made two mistakes about anti-matter. Some thought it had a negative mass, and would thus feel gravity as a push rather than a pull. If this were so, the antiproton's negative mass/energy would cancel the proton's when they met and nothing would remain; in reality, two extremely high-energy gamma photons are produced. Today's theories of the universe say that there is no such thing as a negative mass. The second and more subtle mistake is the idea that anti-water would only annihilate with ordinary water, and could safety be kept in (say) an iron container. This is not so: it is the subatomic particles that react so destructively, and their arrangement makes no difference. Scientists at CERN in Geneva are working on a device called the LEAR (low energy anti-proton ring) in an attempt to slow the velocity of the anti-protons to a billionth of their normal speeds. The slowing of the anti-protons and positrons, which normally travel at a velocity of that near the speed of light, is neccesary so that they have a chance of meeting and combining into anti-hydrogen. The problems with research in the field of anti-matter is that when the anti-matter elements touch matter elements they annihilate each other. The total combined mass of both elements are released in a spectacular blast of energy. Electrons and positrons come together and vanish into high-energy gamma rays (plus a certain number of harmless neutrinos, which pass through whole planets without effect). Hitting ordinary matter, 1 kg of anti-matter explodes with the force of up to 43 million tons of TNT - as though several thousand Hiroshima bombs were detonated at once. So how can anti-matter be stored? Space seems the only place, both for storage and for large-scale production. On Earth, gravity will sooner or later pull any anti-matter into disastrous contact with matter. Anti-matter has the opposite effect of gravity on it, the anti-matter is 'pushed away' by the gravitational force due to its opposite nature to that of matter. A way around

Antibiotics

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Antibiotics have played a major role in our society thanks to Sir Alexander Fleming's careful observations in 1928. Without it, many lives would be in danger due to infectious diseases. Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by various species of microorganisms and other living systems that are capable in small concentrations of inhibiting the growth of or killing bacteria and other microorganisms. These organisms can be bacteria, viruses, fungi, or animals called protozoa. A particular group of these agents is made up of drugs called antibiotics, from the Greek word anti ("against") and bios ("life"). Some antibiotics are produced from living organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and molds. Others are wholly or in part synthetic - that is, produced artificially. Penicillin is perhaps the best known antibiotic. Its discovery and later development is among mankind's greatest achievements. Antibiotics have enabled the medical profession to treat effectively many infectious diseases, including some that were once life-threatening. How Antibiotics Work? Antibiotics can be bacteriostatic (bacteria stopped from multiplying) or bactericidal (bacteria killed). To perform either of these functions, antibiotics must be brought into contact with the bacteria. It is believed that antibiotics interfere with the surface of bacteria cells, causing a change in their ability to reproduce. Testing the action of an antibiotic in the laboratory shows how much exposure to the drug is necessary to halt reproduction or to kill the bacteria. Although a large amount of an antibiotic taken at one time might kill the bacteria causing an illness, such a dose usually would make the person suffer from illness caused by the drug. Therefore, antibiotics are given in a series of smaller amounts. This assures that the bacteria are either killed or reduced enough in numbers so that the body can repel them. When too little antibiotic is taken, bacteria can often develop methods to protect themselves against it . The next time the antibiotic is needed against these bacteria, it will not be effective. Taking in Antibiotics. To work against infecting organisms, an antibiotic can be applied externally, such as to a cut on the skin's surface, or internally, reaching the bloodstream within the body. Antibiotics are made in several forms and given in different ways. Topical. Topical application means "to a local area" such as on the skin, in the eyes, or on the mucous membrane. Antibiotics for topical use are available in the form of powders, ointments, or creams. Oral. Tablets, liquids, and capsules are swallowed.

AIDS and You

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
By Martin H. Goodman MD (this essay is in the public domain) Introduction: AIDS is a life and death issue. To have the AIDS disease is at present a sentence of slow but inevitable death. I've already lost one friend to AIDS. I may soon lose others. My own sexual behavior and that of many of my friends has been profoundly altered by it. In my part of the country, one man in 10 may already be carrying the AIDS virus. While the figures may currently be less in much of the rest of the country, this is changing rapidly. There currently is neither a cure, nor even an effective treatment, and no vaccine either. But there are things that have been PROVEN immensely effective in slowing the spread of this hideously lethal disease. In this essay I hope to present this information. History and Overview: AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Defficiency Disease. It is caused by a virus. The disease originated somewhere in Africa about 20 years ago. There it first appeared as a mysterious ailment afflicting primarily heterosexuals of both sexes. It probably was spread especially fast by primarily female prostitutes there. AIDS has already become a crisis of STAGGERING proportions in parts of Africa. In Zaire, it is estimated that over twenty percent of the adults currently carry the virus. That figure is increasing. And what occurred there will, if no cure is found, most likely occur here among heterosexual folks. AIDS was first seen as a disease of gay males in this country. This was a result of the fact that gay males in this culture in the days before AIDS had an average of 200 to 400 new sexual contacts per year. This figure was much higher than common practice among heterosexual (straight) men or women. In addition, it turned out that rectal sex was a particularly effective way to transmit the disease, and rectal sex is a common practice among gay males. For these reasons, the disease spread in the gay male population of this country immensely more quickly than in other populations. It became to be thought of as a "gay disease". Because the disease is spread primarily by exposure of ones blood to infected blood or semen, I.V. drug addicts who shared needles also soon were identified as an affected group. As the AIDS epidemic began to affect increasingly large fractions of those two populations (gay males

Angina

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
What is Angina? And what is the cure? Angina refers to the pain arising from lack of adequate blood supply to the heart muscle. Typically, it is a crushing pain behind the breastbone in the center of the chest, brought on by exertion and relieved by rest. It may at times radiate to or arise in the left arm, neck, jaw, left chest, or back. It is frequently accompanied by sweating, palpitations of the heart, and generally lasts a matter of minutes. Similar pain syndromes may be caused by other diseases, including esophagitis, gall bladder disease, ulcers, and others. Diagnosis of angina begins with the recognition of the consistent symptoms. Often an exercise test with radioactive thallium is performed if the diagnosis is in question, and sometimes even a cardiac catheterization is done if the outcome is felt necessary to make management decisions. This is a complex area which requires careful judgment by physician and patient. Angina is a manifestation of coronary artery disease, the same disease leading to heart attacks. Coronary artery diseas refers to those syndromes caused by blockage to the flow of blood in those arteries supplying the heart muscle itself, i.e., the coronary arteries. Like any other organ, the heart requires a steady flow of oxygen and nutrients to provide energy for rmovement, and to maintain the delicate balance of chemicals which allow for the careful electrical rhythm control of the heart beat. Unlike some other organs, the heart can survive only a matter of minutes without these nutrients, and the rest of the body can survive only minutes without the heart-thus the critical nature of these syndromes. Causes of blockage range from congenital tissue strands within or over the arteries to spasms of the muscular coat of the arteries themselves. By far the most common cause, however, is the deposition of plaques of cholesterol, platelets and other substances within the arterial walls. Sometimes the buildup is very gradual, but in other cases the buildup is suddenly increased as a chunk of matter breaks off and suddenly blocks the already narrowed opening. Certain factors seem to favor the buildup of these plaques. A strong family history of heart attacks is a definite risk factor, reflecting some metabolic derangement in either cholesterol handling or some other factor. Being male, for reasons probably related to the protective effects of some female hormones, is also a relative risk. Cigarette smoking and high blood pressure

Acatalasia

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Several rare electrophoretic variants of red cell catalase were identified by Baur (1963). Nance et al. (1968) also described electrophoretic variants. Data on gene frequencies of allelic variants were tabulated by Roychoudhury and Nei (1988). Wieacker et al. (1980) assigned a gene for catalase to 11p by study of man-mouse cell hybrid clones. In the hybrid cells, detection of human catalase was precluded by the complexity of the electrophoretic patterns resulting from interference by a catalase-modifying enzyme activity. Therefore, a specific antihuman antibody was used in conjunction with electrophoresis. In mouse, catalase is not syntenic to the beta-globin cluster or to LDH-A. Junien et al. (1980) investigated catalase gene dosage effects in a case of 11p13 deletion, a case of trisomy of all of 11p except 11p13, and a case of trisomy 11p13. The results were consistent with assignment of the catalase locus to 11p13 and its linkage with the WAGR complex (194070). Assay of catalase activity should be useful in identifying those cases of presumed new mutation aniridia that have a risk of Wilms tumor or gonadoblastoma, even in the absence of visible chromosomal deletion. In karyotypically normal patients with aniridia, Wilms tumor, or the combination of the two, Ferrell and Riccardi (1981) found normal catalase levels. Niikawa et al. (1982) confirmed the close linkage of catalase to the gene of the WAGR complex by demonstrating low levels of catalase activity in the erythrocytes of 2 unrelated patients with the WAGR syndrome and small deletions in 11p. From the study of dosage in 2 unrelated patients with an interstitial deletion involving 11p13, Narahara et al. (1984) concluded that both the catalase locus and the WAGR locus are situated in the chromosome segment 11p1306-p1305, with catalase distal to WAGR. Boyd et al. (1986) described a catalase RFLP with 2 different enzymes and used these polymorphisms to exclude deletion of the catalase gene in patients with sporadic aniridia, including one who was known to have a deletion and another suspected of having a deletion. Mannens et al. (1987) found deletion of the catalase locus in 6 of 9 patients with aniridia (AN2; 106210). One of these catalase-deficient aniridia patients had a normal karyotype. No catalase deletion could be demonstrated in 7 Wilms tumors. By classic linkage studies using RFLPs of the several genes as markers, Kittur et al. (1985) derived the following sequence of loci: cen-CAT--16 cM-CALC--8 cM-PTH-pter, with the interval between

The Atom Bomb

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The atom bomb is one of the most important discoveries in modern day science. Countless scientists worked relentlessly on the project and their efforts opened the door for present and future exploration of the atom. Just before the beginning of World War II, Albert Einstein wrote a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Urged by Hungarian-born physicists Leo Szilard, Eugene Wingner, and Edward Teller, Einstein told Roosevelt about Nazi German efforts to purify Uranium-235 which might be used to build an atomic bomb. Shortly after that the United States Government began work on the Manhattan Project. The Manhattan Project was the code name for the United States effort to develop the atomic bomb before the Germans did. "The first successful experiments in splitting a uranium atom had been carried out in the autumn of 1938 at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin" Just after Einstein wrote his letter. So the race was on. Major General Wilhelm D. Styer called the Manhattan Project "the most important job in the war . . . an all-out effort to build an atomic bomb." It turned out to be the biggest development in warfare and science's biggest development this century. The most complicated issue to be addressed by the scientists working on the Manhattan Project was the production of ample amounts of enriched uranium to sustain a chain reaction. At the time, Uranium-235 was hard to extract. Of the Uranium ore mined, only about 1/500th of it ended up as Uranium metal. The Uranium metal is relatively rare, occurring in Uranium at a ratio of 1 to 139. Separating the one part Uranium-235 proved to be a challenge. No ordinary chemical extraction could separate the two isotopes. Only mechanical methods could effectively separate U-235 from U-238. Scientists at Columbia University solved this difficult problem. A massive enrichment plant was built at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. H. C. Urey and his associates and colleagues at Columbia University designed a system that worked on the principle of gaseous diffusion. After this process was completed, Ernest O. Lawrence from the university of California in Berkeley implemented a process i nvolving magnetic separation of the two isotopes. Finally, a gas centrifuge was used to further separate the Uranium-235 from the Uranium-238. The Uranium-238 is forced to the bottom because it had more mass than the Uranium-235. This Uranium was then transported to a laboratory headed by J. Robert Oppenheimer. Oppenheimer was the major

The Cystic Fibrosis Gene

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Introduction Cystic fibrosis is an inherited autosomal recessive disease that exerts its main effects on the digestive system and the lungs. This disease is the most common genetic disorder amongst Caucasians. Cystic fibrosis affects about one in 2,500 people, with one in twenty five being a heterozygote. With the use of antibiotics, the life span of a person afflicted with CF can be extended up to thirty years however, most die before the age of thirteen.1 Since so many people are affected by this disease, it's no wonder that CF was the first human genetic disease to be cloned by geneticists. In this paper, I will be focusing on how the cystic fibrosis gene was discovered while at the same time, discussing the protein defect in the CF gene, the bio-chemical defect associated with CF, and possible treatments of the disease. Finding the Cystic Fibrosis Gene The classical genetic approach to finding the gene that is responsible for causing a genetic disease has been to first characterize the bio-chemical defect within the gene, then to identify the mutated protein in the gene of interest, and finally to locate the actual gene. However, this classical approach proved to be impractical when searching for the CF gene. To find the gene responsible for CF, the principle of "reverse genetics" was applied. Scientists accomplished this by linking the disease to a specific chromosome. After this linkage, they isolated the gene of interest on the chromosome and then tested its product.2Before the disease could be linked to a specific chromosome, a marker needed to be found that would always travel with the disease. This marker is known as a Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism or RFLP for short. RFLP's are varying base sequences of DNA in different individuals which are known to travel with genetic disorders.3 The RFLP for cystic fibrosis was discovered through the techniques of Somatic Cell Hybridization and through Southern Blot Electrophoresis (gel separation of DNA). By using these techniques, three RFLP's were discovered for CF; Doc RI, J3.11, and Met. Utilizing in situ hybridization, scientists discovered the CF gene to be located on the long arm of chromosome number seven. Soon after identifying these markers, another marker was discovered that segregated more frequently with CF than the other markers. This meant the new marker was closer to the CF gene. At this time, two scientists named Lap-Chu Tsui and Francis Collins were able

Climate Change And Mexico

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The Effect of Increased Greenhouse Gasses on Mexico and it's Effort to Reduce Environmental Damage Introduction For over a hundred years, scientists have been carefully gathering and verifying data on the earth's temperature. The latest data reveals some striking trends:
All 10 of the warmest years on record have occurred in the last 15 years
The 1990's have already been warmer than the 1980's- the warmest decade on record
The global average surface temperature has risen 0.5 degrees (site source) For the first time ever, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the authoritative international body charged with studying this issue, concluded that the observed increase in global average temperature over the last century "is unlikely to be entirely natural in origin" and that "the balance of evidence suggests that there is a discernible human influence on global climate." The Earth's climate is the result of extremely complex interactions among the atmosphere, the oceans, the land masses, and living organisms, which are all warmed daily by the sun's enormous energy. This heat would radiate back into space if not for the atmosphere, which relies on a delicate balance of heat-trapping gases, including water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane, to act as a natural "greenhouse," keeping in just the right amount of the sun's energy to support life. For the past 150 years, though, the atmospheric concentrations of these gases, particularly carbon dioxide. Have been rising. As a result, more heat is being trapped than previously, which in turn is causing the global temperature to rise. Climate scientists have linked the increased levels of heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere to human activities, in particular the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas for heating and electricity; gasoline for transportation) deforestation, cattle ranching, and rice farming. Scientists still cannot predict the exact impact on the earth's climate of these rising levels of heat-trapping gases over the next century. But there is striking agreement among most climate scientists about what is likely to occur. Increasingly sophisticated climate models suggest that the planet will warm over the next century at a more rapid rate than ever before recorded. The current best estimate from the Intergovernmental Panel is that if carbon dioxide concentrations double over preindustrial levels, global average surface temperatures will rise between 1.8 degrees and 6.3 degrees F. According to the Panel's range of possible scenarios, an atmospheric doubling of carbon dioxide could occur as early

CFCs

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The beginning of the CFC(chlorofluorocarbons) era started in 1928, when CFC' were invented by a Du Pont chemist. CFC' were best known as "freons" and became famous as a safe, nonflammable refrigerant. It's invention became a great triumph when Freon took the place of sulfur dioxide or ammonia which was used as the working liquid in refrigerators. It eventually became widely used in automobile air conditioners and nontoxic propellants in aerosol cans. It's insulating properties also was used for blowing agents for plastics and foam cups. Thus CFCs became used all over the world and its business got bigger and bigger until late in 1973. Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina, two distinguished chemists, came up with a surprising result in his calculations concerning the CFCs and ozone layer. CFCs are basically inactive in the troposphere(around the altitude of 50,000 feet) so it would gradually drift upward until they reached the mid-stratosphere.(about 100,000 feet) At this point CFCs would be broken down by short-wavelength ultraviolet radiation from the sun. This radiation is the one which would not reach the lower atmosphere in large amounts because of the ozone layer. When these CFCs do brake down, they released atomic chlorine which then would react with the ozone and convert it back into plain oxygen. The even worse part of all this is that these chlorine molecules do not become inactive after the first reaction with the ozone and would be available to destroy more ozone molecules. Thus this process would be the function of a catalyst; a single chlorine atom involved in a chain reaction to destroy many ozone molecules. Rowland and Molina eventually agreed that this thinning of the ozone shield can cause a catastrophe for Earth's living beings, including humans, by allowing large amounts of the deadly ultraviolet-B radiation to reach to Earth's surface. Rowland and Molina checked their calculations again and again to make sure that these figures had not a single mistake in it because this conclusion was likely to destroy an $8 billion industry already in the United States. However, the lives of the living beings were far more important than businesses so in 1974 Rowland and Molina, having their calculations checked by their colleagues, explained their theory in a paper in the eminent scientific journal Nature. Later the only reasonable conclusion they drew out was that the use of CFCs be banned. When these calculations were released to

Carbon

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
I. Introduction A. The History of Carbon II. Occurrences in Nature A. Diamond B. Graphite C. Coal and Charcoal D. Amorphous Carbon III. Carbon Compounds A. Inorganic B. Organic IV. The Carbon Cycle V. Conclusion Carbon, an element discovered before history itself, is one of the most abundant elements in the universe. It can be found in the sun, the stars, comets, and the atmospheres of most planets. There are close to ten million known carbon compounds, many thousands of which are vital to the basis of life itself (WWW 1). Carbon occurs in many forms in nature. One of its purest forms is diamond. Diamond is the hardest substance known on earth. Although diamonds found in nature are colorless and transparent, when combined with other elements its color can range from pastels to black. Diamond is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. Until 1955 the only sources of diamond were found in deposits of volcanic origin. Since then scientists have found ways to make diamond from graphite and other synthetic materials. Diamonds of true gem quality are not made in this way (Beggott 3-4). Graphite is another form of carbon. It occurs as a mineral in nature, but it can be made artificially from amorphous carbon. One of the main uses for graphite is for its lubricating qualities. Another is for the "lead" in pencils. Graphite is used as a heat resistant material and an electricity conductor. It is also used in nuclear reactors as a lubricator (Kinoshita 119-127). Amorphous carbon is a deep black powder that occurs in nature as a component of coal. It may be obtained artificially from almost any organic substance by heating the substance to very high temperatures without air. Using this method, coke is produced from coal, and charcoal is produced from wood. Amorphous carbon is the most reactive form of carbon. Because amorphous carbon burns easily in air, it is used as a combustion fuel. The most important uses for amorphous carbon are as a filler for rubber and as a black pigment in paint (WWW 2). There are two kinds of carbon compounds. The first is inorganic. Inorganic compounds are binary compounds of carbon with metals or metal carbides. They have properties ranging from reactive and saltlike; found in metals such as sodium, magnesium, and aluminum, to an unreactive and metallic, such as titanium and niobium (Beggott 4). Carbon compounds containing nonmetals are usually gases or liquids with low boiling

Global Warming

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
What is global warming, and how is it affecting the Earth and it's inhabitants? Global Warming is sometimes referred to as the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is the absorption of energy radiated from the Earth's surface by carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere, causing the atmosphere to become warmer. The greenhouse effect is what is causing the temperature on the Earth to rise, and creating many problems that will begin to occur in the coming decades. For the last 10,000 years, the Earth's climate has been extraordinarily beneficial to mankind. "Humans have prospered tremendously well under a benign atmosphere," (Bates 28). Today, however, major changes are taking place. People are conducting an inadvertent global experiment by changing the face of the entire planet. We are destroying the ozone layer, which allows life to exist on the Earth's surface. All of these activities are unfavorably altering the composition of the biosphere and the Earth's heat balance. If we do not slow down our use of fossil fuels and stop destroying, the forests, the world could become hotter than it has been in the past million years. Average global temperatures have risen 1 degree Fahrenheit over the last century. If carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to spill into the atmosphere, global temperatures could rise five to 10 degrees by the middle of the next century. The warning will be the greatest at the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, with the largest temperature rises occurring in winter. Most areas will experience summertime highs well above 100 degrees Fahrenheit. New temperature records will be set each year. As a possible prelude to global warming, the decade of the 1980's has had the six hottest years of the century (Erandson 18-22). Atmospheric disturbances brought on by the additional warming will produce more violent storms and larger death tolls. Some areas, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, will dry out and a greater occurrence of lightning strikes will set massive forest fires. The charring of the Earth by natural and man-made forest fires will dump additional quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Changes in temperature and rainfall brought on by global warming will in turn change the composition of the forests. At the present rate of destruction, most of the rain forests will be gone by the middle of the next century. This will allow man-made deserts to encroach

The Human Genome Project

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Does the Human Genome Project effect the moral standards of society? Can the information produced by it become a beneficial asset or a moral evil? For example, X chromosome markers can be used to identify ethnicity. A seemingly harmless collection of information from the Human Genome Project. But let's assume this information is used to explore ways to deny entry into countries, determine social class, or who gets preferential treatment. Whether or not this type of treatment is acceptable to a moral society remains to be seen. The major events of genetic history are important to understanding the Human Genome Project. Genetics is the study of the patterns of inheritance of specific traits. The basic beginnings of genetic history lay in the ancient techniques of selective breeding to yield special characteristics in later generations. This was and still is a form of genetic manipulation by "employing appropriate selection for physical and behavioral traits"(Gert, 93). Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, completed experiments on garden peas so as to establish the quantitative discipline of genetics. Mendel's work explained that the inheritance of traits can be stated by factors passed from one generation to the next; a gene. The complete set of genes for an organism is called it's genome. A genome creates traits that can be explained due to the inheritance of single or multiple genes affected by factors in the environment. Mendel also correctly stated that two copies of every factor exists and that one factor of inheritance could be dominate over another. The next major events of genetic history involved the discovery DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is a double helix of amino acids and proteins that are encode the blueprint for all living things. DNA was found to be packed into chromosomes, of which 23 pairs existed in each cell of the human body. DNA was also found to be made of nucleotide chains consisting of four amino acid bases known as Adenine, Cytosine, Thymine, and Guanine (A, C, T, and G). Any ordered pair of bases makes a sequence. Sequences are the instructions that produce molecules and proteins for cellular structure and biochemical functions. A marker is any location on a chromosome where inheritance can be identified and tracked. Markers can be expressed areas of genes (DNA) or some segment of DNA with no known coding function but an inheritance can still be traced. It is these markers that

Genetic Engineering: A leap in to the future or a leap towards destruction?

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Introduction Science is a creature that continues to evolve at a much higher rate than the beings that gave it birth. The transformation time from tree-shrew, to ape, to human far exceeds the time from an analytical engine, to a calculator, to a computer. However, science, in the past, has always remained distant. It has allowed for advances in production, transportation, and even entertainment, but never in history has science be able to so deeply affect our lives as genetic engineering will undoubtedly do. With the birth of this new technology, scientific extremists and anti-technologists have risen in arms to block its budding future. Spreading fear by misinterpretation of facts, they promote their hidden agendas in the halls of the United States congress. They fear that it is unsafe; however, genetic engineering is a safe and powerful tool that will yield unprecedented results, specifically in the field of medicine. It will usher in a world where gene defects, bacterial disease, and even aging are a thing of the past. By understanding genetic engineering and its history, discovering its possibilities, and answering the moral and safety questions it brings forth, the blanket of fear covering this remarkable technical miracle can be lifted. The first step to understanding genetic engineering and embracing its possibilities for society is to obtain a rough knowledge base of its history and method. The basis for altering the evolutionary process is dependant on the understanding of how individuals pass on characteristics to their offspring. Genetics achieved its first foothold on the secrets of nature's evolutionary process when an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel developed the first "laws of heredity." Using these laws, scientists studied the characteristics of organisms for most of the next one hundred years following Mendel's discovery. These early studies concluded that each organism has two sets of character determinants, or genes (Stableford 16). For instance, in regards to eye color, a child could receive one set of genes from his or her father that were encoded one blue, and the other brown. The same child could also receive two brown genes from his or her mother. The conclusion for this inheritance would be the child has a three in four chance of having brown eyes, and a one in three chance of having blue eyes (Stableford 16). Genes are transmitted through chromosomes which reside in the nucleus of every living organism's cells. Each chromosome is made up

Food Processing And Preservation

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Throughout the history of mankind science has searched into the realms of the unknown. Along with it bringing new discoveries, allowing for our lives to become healthier, more efficient, safer, and at the same time, possibly more dangerous. Among the forces driving scientists into these many experiments, is the desire to preserve the one fuel that keeps our lives going; FOOD. As early as the beginning of the 19th century, major breakthroughs in food preservation had begun. Soldiers and seamen, fighting in Napoleons army were living off of salt-preserved meats. These poorly cured foods provided minimal nutritional value, and frequent outbreaks of scurvy were developing. It was Napoleon who began the search for a better mechanism of food preservation, and it was he who offered 12,000-franc pieces to the person who devised a safe and dependable food-preservation process. The winner was a French chemist named Nicolas Appert. He observed that food heated in sealed containers was preserved as long as the container remained unopened or the seal did not leak. This became the turning point in food preservation history. Fifty years following the discovery by Nicolas Appert, another breakthrough had developed. Another Frenchman, named Louis Pasteur, noted the relationship between microorganisms and food spoilage. This breakthrough increased the dependability of the food canning process. As the years passed new techniques assuring food preservation would come and go, opening new doors to further research. FOOD PROCESSING Farmers grow fruits and vegetables and fatten livestock. The fruits and vegetables are harvested, and the livestock is slaughtered for food. What happens between the time food leaves the farm and the time it is eaten at the table? Like all living things, the plants and animals that become food contain tiny organisms called microorganisms. Living, healthy plants and animals automatically control most of these microorganisms. But when the plants and animals are killed, the organisms yeast, mold, and bacteria begin to multiply, causing the food to lose flavor and change in color and texture. Just as important, food loses the nutrients that are necessary to build and replenish human bodies. All these changes in the food are what people refer to as food spoilage. To keep the food from spoiling, usually in only a few days, it is preserved. Many kinds of agents are potentially destructive to the healthful characteristics of fresh foods. Microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, rapidly spoil food. Enzymes which are present in all

The Ediacaran Fauna

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Up until 1947, it was believed that the Cambrian Explosion marked the first true abundance of multicellular life. However, this was discovered to be untrue after Sir Douglas Mawson and R.C. Sprigg mistakenly came across numerous "fossil jellyfish" in the Ediacara Hills while observing what was originally believed to be sandstones belonging to the lowest strata of the Cambrian. At first, these finding were dismissed as "fortuitous inorganic markings."(AAS Biographical Memoirs.) Several years later however, other discoveries of segmented worms, worm tracks, and impressions of two other assemblages that bear no resemblance to any known organism, living or extinct, prompted the South Australian Museum and the University of Adelaide to undertake a joint investigation of the region. Further studies by M. F. Glaessner, a paleontologist at Adelaide showed that the fossils were found well below the oldest Cambrian strata and that the strata actually dated from the Precambrian era. Several thousand specimens have since been collected in the Ediacara Hills. All the fossils collected were soft-bodied animals and their tissues were strengthened by spicules-needles of calcium carbonate that functioned as their support. The Ediacaran organisms were marine animals, some crawled, some were attached to the sea floor and others would swim or just freely float. Their impressions were molded in the moving sands that washed over the mud flats and were preserved as casts in the sandstone. It is difficult to conceive how fossils of delicate soft-bodied animals could be preserved given the evidence of strong currents in the strata. However, extensive research has provided an explanation. Most of the animals settled on mud patches out of the water during calm currents. Some of these patches dried between tides and developed deep cracks. The next shifting current would then cover these cracks with a layer of sand and the lower surfaces preserved the mud in the form of perfect casts. (Glaessner 67) The nature of these soft-bodied fossils justifies the characterization of the Precambrian as the "age of the jellyfish," however the term jellyfish only refers to a number of diverse forms, which belong to the Phylum Cnideria. (Glaessner 64) Six principle forms of animals have been discovered. The first are the rounded, discoidal impressions, resembling the modern day jellyfish. The second form is the stalk-like fronds with grooved branches that also belong to the Cnideria Phylum. Next come the elongated worm-like impressions with a horseshoe shaped head followed by 40

Drug Identification with Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Drugs are used everyday by people in many different ways for many different reasons. Drug testing has become a standard in pre-employment testing, because of the wide variety of drug use in today's society. Drugs tested for by a possible employer include Cocaine (crack), Amphetamines (crystal), Opiates (codeine, morphine, heroin), PCP (phencyclidine), and Marijuana. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry is used to test hair and urine samples of possible drug abusers or job applicants, and it is the best method for the testing of drug use. Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry are two different methods for identifying chemical substances, and the two instruments have be coupled together to perform a highly complementary analytical function. The gas chromatograph and the mass spectrometer have theories behind how their techniques work, and specific forensic applications for their instrumentation. The history and theory of the gas chromatography started over forty years ago with the invention of the capillary column. The gas chromatograph offers rapid and very high-resolution separations of a very wide range of compounds, with the only restriction that the analyzed substance needs to have sufficient volatility. The theory behind the mass spectrometer is to use the difference in mass-to-charge ratio (m/e) of ionized atoms or molecules to separate them from each other. Mass spectrometry is therefore useful for quantitation of atoms or molecules and also for determining chemical and structural information about molecules. Molecules have distinctive fragmentation patterns that provide structural information to identify structural components. The combination of the gas chromatograph and mass spectrometer is very easy, because both instrument needs to be modified in excess and both are analyzed in the gas phase and have comparable sample levels and temperature ranges. The ! most important feature of the tw o instruments being coupled is that they perform complementary analytical functions. The instrumentation of the gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer is very complex. The instrument's parts include an injector, a carrier gas, a column, a separator, an ionization source, mass separator, and an ion detector. The injector is located on the gas chromatograph and is where the sample gas is injected into the instrument to start the process. The sample gas is then mixed with a carrier gas, which is the mobile phase in gas chromatography. The mixture proceeds into the capillary column where the separation of the sample begins. The capillary column is 15 to 60 meters in length and .25 to .75 millimeters in

Heart Disease

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
It is the time of progress. The time of supercomputers, space shuttles, and many other wonders of technology. We have walked on the moon. We do our shopping at home via Internet navigation. We can not only talk with, but we can see the person we are talking to thousands of miles away. It is mankind's greatest hour. Yet sadly, it is also our time of dying. Strange that no matter how advanced our society has become, our nation's health hasn't caught up. After all, heart disease, also known as cardiovascular disease, is our nation's number one killer (Preventive Magazine Health Books p. 153). The most common, and most preventable, heart disease of all is coronary artery disease. This is caused when blockages develop in the blood vessels that provide oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle. A more general term for any impairment of blood flow through the blood vessels is arteriosclerosis (Hale p.371). One of the most common symptoms is chest pain. When your heart muscle is not getting enough oxygen, it sends out a painful warning signal called angina pectoris(Hale p.372). Because your heart needs oxygen the most when it is working the hardest, angina is most likely to occur during exercise. And if the heart muscle is deprived of oxygen for long enough, it will die, resulting in a heart attack, or myocardial (heart muscle) infarction (tissue death) (Weisse p. 54). As you can see, preventing this disease should be a number one priority. The prevention of heart disease should begin in childhood and continue throughout life. But it is never too late to start; people of all ages can benefit greatly from diet, exercise, smoking cessation, and stress control to prevent heart disease. We should try to control our risk factors, such as cholesterol, high blood-pressure, stress control, smoking habits, lack of exercise, and dietary problems, or more specifically, obesity. There is no one way, or miracle cure, to control these factors, but common sense, as well as modern medicine, tells us how. Simply stop smoking, eat foods lower in cholesterol, lower your blood pressure with a healthy diet and a lower salt intake (this will also control obesity), and use daily exercise routines to help prevent disease. However, as easy as it is to prevent disease using these simple techniques, it is also recommended to visit a doctor regularly to detect disease early in its preclinical, or

Dangerous Mind - Psychology

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Since I've chosen to major in psychology, I've chosen to do my paper on something that pertains to my major. In this case the mental disorder schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a severly disabilitating disease that has stricken the lives of almost two million people in the United States alone (Keefe 20). Since this disease is so devastating the majority of people that suffer from it either live on the streets or in mental institutions. In fact, forty percent of the beds in American mental hospitals are occupied by patients with schizophrenia (Hamilton 145). According to Hamilton the overall chances of a person to develop the disease is one in a hundred (145). There are three distinct types of schizophrenia that are diagnosed in today's society. These are disorganized, catatonic, and paranoid schizophrenia. Disorganized schizophrenia can start to show signs in early adolescents. These people portray inappropriate behaviors and emotions. For instance they may laugh at something like a close friend dieing or cry on a funny part of a movie. Disorganized schizophrenics also talk in a nonsensical manner. They make up their own language or just talk backwards. Catatonic schizophrenia is set apart from the others because of the persons with it unique catatonic, or motionless, state. These people spend lomg periods of time weeks, months, and occasionally years motionless or in other words "dead to the world" (Hamilton 120). When they do snaqp out of their catatomic state they are extremly hostile and aggressive. Last is paranoid schizophrenia which is characterized by the false beliefs or delusions the person has. For example the thought that the FBI planted a secret microchip in their brain and is controlling them. Alomg with these specific types of schizophrenia are some symptoms that pertain to all schizophrenics. Firstoff, all people diagnosed with schizophrenia have perceptual difficulties, that is, they sufer from hallucinations. A hallucination is a false sensory experience, such as seeing things, hearing things, and even feeling things that aren't really there. Hallucinatioms have a compelling sense of reality to the persons who suffer from them. Auditory hallucinationsare by far the most common form of hallucinatiom in schizophrenia. They are so characteristic of the disease that a person with true auditory hallucinations should be assumed to have schizophrenia until proven otherwise (Kagn 485). Thought disorders or delusions are also a symptom found in all schizophrenics. These include incoherent speech, quick shifts of ideas from one

Math Of Nature Or Math For Nature

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Math is one of the basic sciences of life; it can be said that is the most basic science, the first thing a person learns, apart from reading and writing, is how to add and subtract. But, is math a part of nature, or was it made to measure or understand nature? It is really hard to know, but in my point of view, math is a method created by men to measure nature. If math was a part of nature, man would be

Hypertension

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Hypertension is the medical term for high blood pressure. A normal blood pressure is 120/80. A blood pressure reading higher or equal to 140/90 is considered abnormally high. Elevated blood pressure means your heart is working harder than normal, putting both your heart and arteries under great strain. High blood pressure is serious business. On average, people with uncontrolled hypertension are:
Seven times more likely to have a stroke.
Six times more likely to develop congestive heart failure.
Three times more likely to have a heart attack.
Different types of hypertension From my research, I didn't find any other types of hypertension. What are some causes? In 90% of cases, the cause of hypertension is unknown. This is called "essential hypertension". The other 10% of cases is called "secondary hypertension". Secondary hypertension is caused by kidney disease, severe narrowing of the aorta, tumors in the adrenal gland, or hardening of the arteries. There are many factors associated with high blood pressure, including smoking, age, race, a high-salt diet, excessive alcohol consumption, stress, use of birth control pills, obesity, and a sedentary lifestyle. what age is at risk? If you are a man from 35 to 50, you are in a high-risk zone for hypertension, this is especially true if hypertension also runs in your family. It is less likely for women to have high-blood pressure, but the risk increases after menopause. Symptoms There are usually no symptoms for hypertension. This is why it is often called the "silent killer". Actually, you could have hypertension for years and not know about because you feel fine. But symptoms do show up if the case is severe. Some of these symptoms are:
Headache
Nosebleeds
Drowsiness
Confusion
Dizziness
Irregular heartbeat
Numbness and tingling in hands and feet
Coughing up blood
Shortness of breath Health Hazards Hypertension accelerates hardening of the arteries, which may contribute to a stroke or heart attack. This can also lead to brain hemorrhage, kidney failure, heart failure, or blindness. Treatments The best way to treat hypertension is to just change your lifestyle (see Preventive Measures), but many times, patients need other medications and therapies. No more than 2 percent of hypertensive patients can be treated surgically. There are basically four groups of drugs a physician would prescribe a hypertension patient: Diuretics This is usually the first choice a doctor would prescribe. It helps by increasing the rate you body eliminates urine and salt. However, this can also increase your cholesterol level, make you urinate more

Homeopathy

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Samuel Hahnemann, a brilliant German medical doctor and chemist, developed the science of homeopathy at the end of the 18th century. He was responding, in part, to his concern that more people were dying from medical treatments than from their diseases. Hahnemann believed that the purpose of medical therapy should be to restore health quickly, gently and permanently in the least harmful manner without toxic side-affects or the suppression of symptoms which would only return. His work and principles have been carried on and developed by many dedicated homeopaths right to the present day. Homeopathy now rests on the firm foundation of Hahnemann's work and some 200 years of well-documented, successful healing experience. Hahnemann's guiding principles still apply today in the practice of classical homeopathy, but his criteria are otherwise rarely met despite all the improvements and advances in so-called modern medicine. The True Classical Homeopathic Approach to Cure Fundamental to classical homeopathy is the view that we are each a synergistic whole, every part of our wholistic being effecting every other part. It is the combination of all symptoms and how they are experienced by the individual which should be addressed in attempting to cure that person and their disorders. When someone has a health problem, it is the whole person that has the problem. The problem does not exist in isolation from the person. They can't simply put the problem in a box and forget it. Therefore, when attempting to cure that person it is the whole person that should be considered, not simply what is thought to be a disordered part of the person. This is the wholistic approach of classical homeopathy. This is in contrast to the conventional approach to disease which often oversimplifies it as one isolated symptom or group of symptoms, as a problem affecting only one part or aspect of the body and person. The "sloppy approach" to homeopathy is guilty of the same practice. Classical Homeopathy, by contrast, prescribes remedies on a constitutional basis, treating the entire individual, their symptoms and modalities. To arrive at the correctly chosen remedy for a chronic disorder, the detailed case of all aspects of the individual must be taken. The true classical homeopath delves into the broad collection of symptoms and peculiarities of the individual, their entire mental, emotional and physical make-up. This requires an in-depth sense of the patient, a keen sensitivity to them which is able

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
OXYGEN (O) Oxygen was discovered

The Piltdown Man

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
1. A hoax A hoax: n. 1. Practical joke 2. Deceptive trick 3. Play trick upon 4. Decieve example: Piltdown Man For forty years they were considered one of the archaeological finds of the century: A fragment of jaw and a part of a skull that could prove man evolved from the apes. They were the bones of Eoanthropus dawsoni found near Piltdown Common in Sussex. The bones of the "Missing Link." Not since 1953 the name "Piltdown" hasn't been associated with great scientific discovery, but great scientific fraud. It was in that year that a group of scientists, lead by Kenneth Page Oakley, attempted to use the new method of fluorine testing to get a more exact date on the bones. What the test showed surprised them: The jaw was modern and the skull only six hundred years old. Additional analysis soon confirmed the fluorine tests. The jaw was really that of an orangutan. It had been filed down and parts that might have suggested it's simian origin were broken off. Both pieces had been treated to suggest great age. Piltdown was proclaimed genuine by several of the most brilliant British scientists of the day: Arthur Smith Woodward, Arthur Keith and Grafton Elliot Smith. How did these faked fragments of bone fool the best scientific minds of the time? Perhaps the desire to be part of a great discovery blinded those charged with authenticating it. Many English scientists felt left out by discoveries on the continent. Neanderthal had been found in Germany in 1856, and Cro-Magnon in France in 1868. Perhaps national pride had kept the researchers from noticing the scratch marks made by the filing of the jaw and teeth. Items that were apparent later on to investigators after Oakley exposed the hoax. Even as early as 1914, though, there were those that doubted the fossils. William King Gregory wrote, "It has been suspected by some that geologically [the specimens] are not old at all; that they may even represent a deliberate hoax..." Who perpetrated the hoax? Many historians lay their bets on Charles Dawson, the amateur geologist that supposedly discovered the bones in a gravel pit. Others, though, lay the blame at the feet of people as diverse as a young Jesuit priest, named Teilhard de Chardin, who assisted in the dig, to the author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who lived in the area. Dawson was an English solicitor who sought

Should Stimulants Be Prescribed for ADHD Children?

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
In this day and age, drugs are being prescribed without hesitation. In fact, many of these drugs are being prescribed for children with various disorders. One of these disorders is called Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). An estimated five to ten percent of children are diagnosed with this syndrome (Taylor 11). One of the methods to treat this disorder is to use stimulants, specifically Ritalin. This method is controversial because it has many side effects and its long-term effects are unknown. It can also lead to addiction. Approximately two to three percent of elementary school children are taking some kind of stimulant to treat ADHD (Taylor 64). Since so many children are taking this medication, new problems have arisen. Many of these children use these drugs in excessive amounts to get "high" with their friends. Some overdoses have even caused death. The alternative ways to treat this syndrome without medication are not adequately explored. Some doctors have found ways to combat this problem with little or no drugs. Why aren't more doctors looking into these alternative methods? What kind of example is this excessive drug use setting for the children? Finally, what actions can be taken to solve this problem? Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a syndrome caused by a biochemical imbalance and uniqueness. It has hundreds of symptoms that appear selectively in a certain children. Some of these symptoms include distractibility, confusion, faulty abstract thinking, inflexibility, poor verbal skills, aimlessness, perceptual difficulties, constant movement, varied rates of development, food cravings, allergies, and sleeping and coordination problems. The children have "little ability to block out noises in order to concentrate" (Taylor 14). Many qualities to look for in ADHD children are self-centeredness, impatience, recklessness, extreme emotionalism, and weak consciences. ADHD children have trouble in school with reading, handwriting and paying attention to what is important. They constantly fidget and squirm and can't express their thoughts into words. Detecting ADHD is a complicated matter since there are no blood tests or evident genetic tests to confirm this syndrome. The most common way to treat ADHD is with stimulants or anti-depressants. "These medications stimulate the child's "brake pedal" whereas without treatment the child is all "gas pedal" (Taylor 63)." The most common drugs prescribed for this disorder are Dexedrine, Ritalin and Cylert. They are effective for a four to five hour time period while the sustained-released tablets are effective for seven to

The Psychological Effects of Using Steriods

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Anabolic Steriods. What are they? Where do they come from? Why are they used? From amateurs to pros, from body builders to football players and every sport in between, Steriods, or "roids" as they are referred to, have been in the circle of athletes since the 1950's. Is it vanity that drives athletes to use steriods? Do they understand the end results from the abuse of "roids"? What psychological effects do steriods have on users? In order to understand the psychological effects of steriods, you must first understand what steriods are and where they come from. The natural form of steriods is the hormone testosterone, which is produced in males by the testes and adrenal glands and by the adrenal glands in females. The body uses these hormones to combat inflammation, stimulate development of bones and muscles, contributes to the growth of skin and hair and can also influnece emotions. Anabolic Steriods, also known as "juice", are a synthetic version of the hormone testosterone. When taken, either orally or injected, these synthetic steriods fool the body into thinking that testosterone is being produced and therefore the body shuts down functions involving testosterone(Mishra 2). Given the right training stimulus and diet, these steriods enables the user to process protien into muscle fibers at astonishing rates, creating increased muscle size and strength with a drop in body fat (due to an increase in metabolic rate) (Silver 1). They are, in effect, the chemical essence of manliness, pysical power and masculine aggression (Nichols 38). Synthetic steriods were developed in the 1930's to rebuild and prevent the breakdown of body tissue from disease. In the 1950's, synthetic steriods became popular with athletes because they helped produce this greater-than-normal muscle size and strength, but the abuse of these synthetic steriods has many dangerous physical and psychological effects. Steriods are fast catching up with antibiotics as the most abused class of drugs prescribed by doctors even though they cannot cure one single condition. All steriods can do is supress the bodies ability to express a normal response. Sometimes suppression will give the body a chance to heal itself, but more often causes permanent damage. Doctors, by law, cannot prescribe anabolic steriods for the purpose of athletic enhancement, and possession of these steriods without a prescription is a felony, but today there are an estimated one million current or former illegal-steriod users in the United States (Nichols 1). So why

Relative Dating

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The Fundamental Principles of Relative Dating Relative dating involves placing events in their proper chronological sequence, that is, in the order of their occurrence (Dutch 1998). This type of dating tells us which geologic event happened first, but does not give an exact date to which something happened. There are several different methods that are used in relative dating. These are the fundamental methods that are used in the field by geologists' and earth scientists to gather information about the relative age of rock bodies and other cool geologic stuff. These principles are the principle of superposition, the principle of original horizontality, the principle of cross-cutting relationships, and the principle of inclusions. The principle of superposition is defined as in the environment of an undisturbed layer of sedimentary rocks; the layers on the bottom are older than the layers towards the top. The pictures I have taken show very good examples of this. By using the principle of superposition we can know that the layers toward the bottom are older than the layers toward the top. The rock body shown in the pictures attached, started out as one layer, as millions and millions of years passed more layers of sedimentary rock were placed on top of each other one after another, each layer was deposited at a later time than the one before it. The youngest layer is on the top, and the oldest layer is on the bottom. This principle was founded by the Danish anatomist Nicolas Steno, who noted that during floods, streams spread across their floodplains and deposit layers of sediment that bury organisms dwelling there. He noticed that later floods produce younger layers of sediments that are deposited or superposed over previous deposits (Dutch 1998). This is just one example how superposition can occur on a smaller scale. The principle of superposition can also help give a relative date of any type of biological remnants that are contained in the layers. The next principle that I am going to discuss is the principle of original horizontality. This principle states that rocks are originally layered in horizontal planes, and any inclining area is caused by tilting of the rocks. Steno came up with this principle also (Dutch 1998). In picture number one it is fairly noticeable that the rock layers are higher on the left side than on the right. This tells us that during some period of time, the

Plastics

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Plastics are a product that is very common in our everday usage. We use plastics everywhere ranging for Tupperware to the cars that we drive. Although most everyone has accepted the fact that plastics make our lives easier and has become essential to us, there are people out there who are perhaps unaware of how important plastics are to our society, or people who just don't approve of plastics because of its environmental harm. An advertisement in a Health Care magazine tries to convince this audience why plastics are needed and the usefulness of plastics. The advertisement tries to show its audience that plastics play an important role in our everyday lives and tries to make the audience question where we would be without the use of plastics. This advertisement, directed towards people that do not realize the usefulness of plastics or who do not approve of the use of plastics, through the use of pathos, logos, and ethos tries to persuade its audience that, "Plastics make it possible." The pathos plays on the audience's sympathy of why we should use plastics, the logos gives reasons how plastics are useful and why they are used in our society, and the ethos makes the audience feel that if unconvinced by the advertisement alone, there is more information available to them. First and foremost seen in the advertisement is pathos. The advertisement grabs the audience's attention by showing a picture of a bunch of boys playing football. Knowing that the children are our future and that the children of today shape our tomorrow, many people are concerned with the problems of our younger generations and care a great deal about what happens to our younger generations. The advertisement does a good job of playing on the audience's emotions by involving children. Half of the advertisement is covered by the picture of a bunch of little boys playing football. The boys are wearing football helmets and look as though there is not one scratch on any one of them. The advertisement is trying to convey is that if it were not for the football helmets, which happens to be made out of plastic, then the boys would be hurt and all bruised up. This gives the image that the reason the boys can be rough with one another and not be hurt is do to the fact that they are all wearing plastic helmets.

Acid Rain

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Introduction Acid rain has become an environmental concern of global importance within the last decade. With the increasing environmental awareness of the "unhealthy" condition of our planet earth the concern about acid rain has not lessened. In brief, acid rain is rain with pH values of less than 5.6. When dealing with acid rain one must study and understand the process of making Sulfuric acid. In this project we will take an in depth look into the production of sulfuric acid, some of its uses and the effects of it as a pollutant in our environment. Sulfuric Acid Industry in Ontario Among the many plants in Ontario where sulfuric acid is produced, there are three major plant locations that should be noted on account of their greater size. These are:
Inco. - Sudbury
Noranda Mines Ltd. - Welland
Sulfide - Ontario
There are a number of factors which govern the location of each manufacturing plant. Some of these factors that have to be considered when deciding the location of a Sulfuric Acid plant are: a. Whether there is ready access to raw materials; b. Whether the location is close to major transportation routes; c. Whether there is a suitable work force in the area for plant construction and operation; d. Whether there is sufficient energy resources readily available; e. Whether or not the chemical plant can carry out its operation without any unacceptable damage to the environment. Listed above are the basic deciding factors that govern the location of a plant. The following will explain in greater detail why these factors should be considered. 1) Raw Materials The plant needs to be close to the raw materials that are involved in the production of sulfuric acid such as sulfur, lead, copper, zinc sulfides, etc.. 2) Transportation A manufacturer must consider proximity to transpor-tation routes and the location of both the source of raw materials and the market for the product. The raw materials have to be transported to the plant, and the final product must be transported to the customer or distributor. Economic pros and cons must also be thought about. For example, must sulfuric plants are located near the market because it costs more to transport sulfuric acid than the main raw materials, sulfur. Elaborate commission proof container are required for the transportation of sulfuric acid while sulfur can be much more easily transported by truck or railway car. 3) Human Resources For a sulfuric acid plant to operate, a large work force

Acid Rain

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
INTRODUCTION: Acid rain is a great problem in our world. It causes fish and plants to die in our waters. As well it causes harm to our own race as well, because we eat these fish, drink this water and eat these plants. It is a problem that we must all face together and try to get rid of. However acid rain on it's own is not the biggest problem. It cause many other problems such as aluminum poisoning. Acid Rain is deadly. WHAT IS ACID RAIN? Acid rain is all the rain, snow, mist etc that falls from the sky onto our planet that contains an unnatural acidic. It is not to be confused with uncontaminated rain that falls, for that rain is naturally slightly acidic. It is caused by today's industry. When products are manufactured many chemicals are used to create it. However because of the difficulty and cost of properly disposing of these products they are often emitted into the atmosphere with little or no treatment. The term was first considered to be important about 20 years ago when scientists in Sweden and Norway first believed that acidic rain may be causing great ecological damage to the planet. The problem was that by the time that the scientist found the problem it was already very large. Detecting an acid lake is often quite difficult. A lake does not become acid over night. It happens over a period of many years, some times decades. The changes are usually to gradual for them to be noticed early. At the beginning of the 20th century most rivers/lakes like the river Tovdal in Norway had not yet begun to die. However by 1926 local inspectors were noticing that many of the lakes were beginning to show signs of death. Fish were found dead along the banks of many rivers. As the winters ice began to melt off more and more hundreds upon hundreds more dead fish (trout in particular) were being found. It was at this time that scientist began to search for the reason. As the scientists continued to work they found many piles of dead fish, up to 5000 in one pile, further up the river. Divers were sent in to examine the bottom of the rivers. What they found were many more dead fish. Many live and dead specimens were taken back to labs across Norway. When the live specimens were examined they

Acid Rain

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Acid Rain is caused

Acid Rain

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
When thought of acid rain, some people may think of green, burning acid falling from the sky, destroying everything in sight. This may be a bit ridiculous and hard to believe, but as absurd as it sound, it is not far from the truth. Acid deposition has long been a subject of debate because of the widespread environ-mental damage it is responsible for. As one of the major results of air pollution, acid rain can corrode metal and limestone structures, leach important minerals, decreased fertility of soils, and lower pH in lakes and ponds. For those who fear "the end of the world," acid rain may pose a threat as it creates a bad environment for both animal and human. And for those who care about our planet, maybe it is about time we stop destroying it and give something back to Mother Earth. There are numerous causes of acid precipitation, several of these are insignificant and accumulate into severe cases. However, there are also some sources that are menacing by itself, sources such as industrial emissions. In some cases, acid rain is caused when industrial fumes mix with moisture in the atmosphere. Acids are then carried in clouds for long distances before they are deposited through rain, which indicates that forests and lakes far away from factories may be damaged by acid rain. Another significant cause of acid rain is automobile exhaust. Research has shown that although industrial emission makes up for most causes, sulfur dioxide from oil and coal combustion and nitrogen oxides produced from automobile engines have greatly intensified the problem. Electric power plants are also to blame for this issue. Recent study has shown that power plants are accountable for the release of more than 20 million tons of sulfur Per. 3 dioxide each year. Meaning that 10 years from now, there would be around 30 million tons of acid rain components in our atmosphere. What's even worst than acid rain and its causes are the results. Acid deposition can cause a number of disasters, some of the serious effects includes structure eradication. The marble frieze panels on the Parthenon of Athens for example, has been transformed by acid rain into gypsum. Loosing much of its details, the exterior of the Parthenon is also beginning to crack and flake off. The effects of acid rain can also be seen in lakes, rivers, and streams and plant growth. Acidity

Prolonged Preservation of the Heart Prior to Transplantation

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Picture this. A man is involved in a severe car crash in Florida which has left him brain-dead with no hope for any kind of recovery. The majority of his vital organs are still functional and the man has designated that his organs be donated to a needy person upon his untimely death. Meanwhile, upon checking with the donor registry board, it is discovered that the best match for receiving the heart of the Florida man is a male in Oregon who is in desperate need of a heart transplant. Without the transplant, the man will most certainly die within 48 hours. The second man's tissues match up perfectly with the brain-dead man's in Florida. This seems like an excellent opportunity for a heart transplant. However, a transplant is currently not a viable option for the Oregon man since he is separated by such a vast geographic distance from the organ. Scientists and doctors are currently only able to keep a donor heart viable for four hours before the tissues become irreversibly damaged. Because of this preservation restriction, the donor heart is ultimately given to someone whose tissues do not match up as well, so there is a greatly increased chance for rejection of the organ by the recipient. As far as the man in Oregon goes, he will probably not receive a donor heart before his own expires. Currently, when a heart is being prepared for transplantation, it is simply submerged in an isotonic saline ice bath in an attempt to stop all metabolic activity of that heart. This cold submersion technique is adequate for only four hours. However, if the heart is perfused with the proper media, it can remain viable for up to 24 hours. The technique of perfusion is based on intrinsically simple principles. What occurs is a physician carefully excises the heart from the donor. He then accurately trims the vessels of the heart so they can be easily attached to the perfusion apparatus. After trimming, a cannula is inserted into the superior vena cava. Through this cannula, the preservation media can be pumped in. What if this scenario were different? What if doctors were able to preserve the donor heart and keep it viable outside the body for up to 24 hours instead of only four hours? If this were possible, the heart in Florida could have been transported across the country to Oregon where the

Asthma

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Asthma is a condition of the bronchial tubes characterized by episodes of constriction and increased mucous production. A person with asthma has bronchial tubes that are super sensitive to various stimuli, or triggers, that can produce asthma symptom. In other words, asthmatics have special sensitivity that causes their lung tissue to react far more than is should to various stimulating factors or triggers. For this reason, people with asthma are said to have "twitchy airways." Some symptoms that people with asthma commonly experience are chest tightenings, difficulty inhaling and exhaling, wheezing, production of large amounts of mucous in their windpipes and coughing. Coughing can be frequent or intermittent, and can be loose-reflecting extra mucous secretion in the airways or dry and deep-reflecting tight bronchospasms. Not all these symptoms occur in every case of asthma. Sometimes people may have coughing without and symptoms for months or even years before it's realized that they are asthmatic. Interestingly enough, asthma symptoms are most severe at night, while we're lying down our airways narrow as a result of gravity changes. Also our lungs do not clear secretions as well at night, which leads to mucous retention, and that can increase the obstruction to air flow. Furthermore, at night our bodies produce smaller amounts of certain chemical that help to decrease airway spasms and keep airway tubes open. All of these factors add up to a greater chance of symptoms worsening at night. An asthma attack begins when the smooth muscles in the walls of the bronchial tubes start to tighten and narrow when they are exposed to a trigger when this bronchospasm occurs, air can't flow into or out of the lungs. To make matters worse, mucous enters the narrowed bronchial tubes and plugs them up, causing a further decrease in air flow. The bronchial tubes seem to close down, and air moving through these narrowed breathing passages can cause wheezing which is a high-pithched-whistlelike sound. Wheezing can be loud enough to be heard across a room, or it can be so slight that is takes a stethoscope to hear it. Airflow obstructions leads to air trapping in lungs. Once trapped, stale air builds up in the lungs. Asthma attacks can be so mild they're hardly noticed or so severe that asthmatics can feel like they're suffocating. Although more attacks seem to occur at night, they can virtually happen anytime. Attacks may come on very suddenly, or they may develop

The Importance Of Animal Research

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Research on animals is important in understanding diseases and developing ways to prevent them. The polio vaccine, kidney transplants, and heart surgery techniques have all been developed with the help of animal research. Through increased efforts by the scientific community, effective treatments for diabetes, diphtheria, and other diseases have been developed with animal testing. Animal research has brought a dramatic progress into medicine. With the help of animal research, smallpox has been wiped out worldwide. Micro-surgery to reattach hearts, lungs, and other transplants are all possible because of animal research. Since the turn of the century, animal research has helped increase our life-span by nearly 28 years. And now, animal research is leading to dramatic progress against AIDS and Alzheimer's disease. Working with animals in research is necessary. Scientists need to test medical treatments for effectiveness and test new drugs for safety before beginning human testing. Small animals, usually rats, are used to determine the possible side effects of new drugs. After animal tests have proven the safety of new drugs, patients asked to participate in further studies can be assured that they may fare better, and will not do worse than if they were given standard treatment or no treatment. New surgical techniques first must be carefully developed and tested in living, breathing, whole organ systems with pulmonary and circulatory systems much like ours. The doctors who perform today's delicate cardiac, ear, eye, pulmonary and brain surgeries, as well as doctors in training, must develop the necessary skills before patients' lives are entrusted to their care. Neither computer models, cell cultures, nor artificial substances can simulate flesh, muscle, blood, and organs like the ones in live animals. There is no alternative to animal research. Living systems are complex. The nervous system, blood and brain chemistry, and gland secretions are all interrelated. It is impossible to explore, explain or predict the course of many diseases or the effects of many treatments without observing and testing the entire living system. Cell and tissue cultures, often suggested as "alternatives" to using animals, have been used in medical research for many years. But these are only isolated tests. And isolated tests will yield only isolated results, which may bear little relation to a whole living system. Scientists do not yet know enough about living systems or diseases, nor does the technology exist, to replicate one on a computer. The information required to build a true computer

The Effects Of Altitude On Human Physiology

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Changes in altitude have a profound effect on the human body. The body attempts to maintain a state of homeostasis or balance to ensure the optimal operating environment for its complex chemical systems. Any change from this homeostasis is a change away from the optimal operating environment. The body attempts to correct this imbalance. One such imbalance is the effect of increasing altitude on the body's ability to provide adequate oxygen to be utilized in cellular respiration. With an increase in elevation, a typical occurrence when climbing mountains, the body is forced to respond in various ways to the changes in external environment. Foremost of these changes is the diminished ability to obtain oxygen from the atmosphere. If the adaptive responses to this stressor are inadequate the performance of body systems may decline dramatically. If prolonged the results can be serious or even fatal. In looking at the effect of altitude on body functioning we first must understand what occurs in the external environment at higher elevations and then observe the important changes that occur in the internal environment of the body in response. HIGH ALTITUDE In discussing altitude change and its effect on the body mountaineers generally define altitude according to the scale of high (8,000 - 12,000 feet), very high (12,000 - 18,000 feet), and extremely high (18,000+ feet), (Hubble, 1995). A common misperception of the change in external environment with increased altitude is that there is decreased oxygen. This is not correct as the concentration of oxygen at sea level is about 21% and stays relatively unchanged until over 50,000 feet (Johnson, 1988). What is really happening is that the atmospheric pressure is decreasing and subsequently the amount of oxygen available in a single breath of air is significantly less. At sea level the barometric pressure averages 760 mmHg while at 12,000 feet it is only 483 mmHg. This decrease in total atmospheric pressure means that there are 40% fewer oxygen molecules per breath at this altitude compared to sea level (Princeton, 1995). HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The human respiratory system is responsible for bringing oxygen into the body and transferring it to the cells where it can be utilized for cellular activities. It also removes carbon dioxide from the body. The respiratory system draws air initially either through the mouth or nasal passages. Both of these passages join behind the hard palate to form the pharynx. At the base of the pharynx

Aggression In Man

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
There are different reasons why a person may act aggressively towards other human beings. The person may act this way because of his culture or the way he was brought up in society. The person does not, however, act this way based on instinct alone. Aggression is a molded, learned behavior. A human being must have both environmental and instinctual factors in order to display aggression. Some of a person's natural instincts are to desire food, reject certain things, escape from danger, fight when challenged, sex desire, care for the young, dominate, and to accept inferior status. The combination of instincts and environment determines a person's behavior. This is based on the theory that everything human beings do would have to be learned from other human beings. Aggression must be learned; it is not simply there from birth. Rather than being an uncontrollable instinct, a person's behavior is something that is taught to him. For example, a newborn baby is breathing because it is an involuntary reflex. On the other hand, a father may tell his young son to beat up the school bully who is picking on him. As a result, the boy is taught to deal with the situation by using violence. In order for an individual to display aggression, it must be driven by an instinct interacting with that person's surroundings. McDougall defines the word instinct as "an inherited or innate psycho-physical disposition which determines its possessor to perceive, and to pay attention to, objects of a certain class, to experience an emotional excitement of a particular quality upon perceiving such an object, and to act in regard to its particular manner, or, at least, to experience an impulse to such action." This definition basically explains that people have different reactions for different stimuli. Therefore, an individual is prone to act a certain way when he is stimulated to do so from his surrounding environment. For example, the Eskimo does not have an innate instinct that allows him to survive in his climate. He is taught to work with his people in order to survive when he is very young. When people are brought up in a society, they learn certain customs and traditions. These customs are usually taught to them because it's part of their society's way of life, even though some of the customs may seem cruel and repulsive to others. For example, cannibalism is abhorrent to

Eukaryotic Organelles

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The mitochondria has an eggshape structure. The mitochondria consists of an inner and outer membrane. The outer membrane is what shapes the organelle to its egglike shape. The inner membrane which folds inward makes a set of "shelves" or cristae that allow the reactions of the mitochondria to take place. The more the mitochondria makes these reactions the more the inner membrane folds. This happens because the mitochondria now has more surface area connecting it to its surroundings. The

Diabeties

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
There are two types of diabetes: diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus. Diabetes insipidus is a rare metabolic disorder caused by a deficiency of the pituitary hormone, which is usually the result of damage to the pituitary gland. Diabetes insipidus is characterized by enormous amounts of urine that are produced by the body regardless of how much liquid is consumed. Diabetes mellitus results from the production of insufficient amounts of insulin by the pancreas. Without insulin the body cannot utilize glucose, thus creating a high level of glucose in the blood and a low level of glucose absorption by the tissues. Diabetes mellitus is generally divided into two categories: type I called insulin-dependent or juvenile diabetes and type II in which the onset of the diabetes occurs during adulthood. The symptoms of the type I diabetic include irritability, frequent urination, abnormal thirst, nausea or vomiting, weakness, fatigue, and unusual hunger. This type of diabetes occurs mostly in children or young adults. The type I diabetic may have an insulin reaction in an instant, seeming perfectly normal one second and becoming unconscious the next. The early warning signs of this type of reaction are hunger, dizziness, sweating, confusion, palpitation, and numbness or tingling of the lips. If left untreated, the insulin-dependent diabetic may also experience double vision, trembling, and disorientation, may perform strange actions, and may eventually lose consciousness. While experiencing any one of these symptoms, quick consumption of a piece of candy, some soda pop, or anything else that contains sugar will bring blood sugar levels back to normal. Recovery is more difficult for the diabetic whose insulin reaction is left untreated for a long period of time. An insulin reaction producing low blood sugar can be life threatening. Therefore, it is safer to "spill" small amounts of urine sugar when taking insulin. The second type of diabetes, often referred to as maturity-onset diabetes, is likely to occur in those with a family history of diabetes and is characterized by blurred vision, itching, unusual thirst, drowsiness, obesity, fatigue, skin infections, slow healing, and tingling or numbness in the feet. Onset of symptoms is usually later in life. Diet often controls this type and insulin is not usually required. Obesity is a major factor in type II diabetes. An estimated 5.5 million Americans are being treated for diabetes. Studies indicate that there are 5 million adults with undetected type II diabetes, and another 20 million have

Coral reefs

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Coral reefs are arguably the world's most beautiful habitats. Coral reefs have been called the rainforests of the oceans, because of the rich diversity of life they support. Scientists have not yet finished counting the thousands of different species of plants and animals that use or live in the coral reef. There are three types of coral reefs: fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls. Fringing reefs are located close to shore, separated from land by only shallow water. Barrier reefs lie farther offshore, separated from land by lagoons more than ten meters deep. Atolls, on the other hand, are formed far offshore and they make a ring-shaped reef that close a circular lagoon. Coral reefs are the largest biological structures on the planet, with the largest being the Great Barrier Reef covering over 2000 kilometers along the east coast of Australia (Focus, 1995). The reef is said to be 500,000 to 2,500,000 years old and is said to be visible from the moon.(Scientific, 1987). There is only one problem with this beautiful structure and that is the carelessness of man. Silt from deforested lands and pollution from crowded coastlines choke them, and overuse by coal miners, fisheries, and even tourists deplete and destroy coral reefs. There are many more factors which add to the destruction of the coral reefs, which if not stopped it will destroy all coral reefs. Corals are animals, not plants, sunlight is the key to their survival. They need it to power the millions of microscopic algae, called zooxanthellae, that live in their tissues. The algae provides the corals with food and oxygen in return for raw materials and a secure place to live. This teamwork is what allows the reef to survive in nutrient-poor tropical seas. This relationship is sensitive to such changes in the environment as cloudy waters or extreme temperatures. The stress on the corals can cause them to expel their algae, a phenomenon known as bleaching(Futurists, 1993). With the algae gone, the coral skeleton is visible and eventually it dies. Died corals lead further on to the death of the reef. There are four environmental factors that effect their growth: temperature, salinity, water depth, and wave action. These factors exposes the reef to changes in the environment very easily especially since it is located so close to shore. This also makes it hard for all of the species which use the coral reef to

The End Permian Mass Extinction

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Introduction Think of a world which existed 290 million years ago. As you look out over the terane in front of you, you think that you are on an alien planet. You see volcanoes spewing ash and lava. Beside them is the ocean which is swarming with many different species of echinoderms, bryozoans and brachiopods. As you look down onto the sea floor you are amazed at the countless number of starfish and urchins. Some animals leave you can't even describe and you have no idea even what phylum they belong to. This is a world at its height in diversity of oceanic species. Millions of wonderous species existed at this time in the ocean and most of them will never appear again in earth's history. In the geologic time scale, a million years means nothing but this time things are different. In the blink of an eye things now look vastly different. The world once again looks alien but it looks worse than before. The sky is dark. Oceans are no longer teaming with life. The stench of rotting flesh and plants hangs in the air. The ground trembles under your feet. You feel an intense heat burning you face. You look up and see one of the greatest show of force mother nature has ever shown. Whole mountains are being thrown in the air. Lava and debris are everywhere. You ask yourself, what has happened? Will life ever exist on earth again? The above paragraph is a primative example of what the end of the Permian period could have looked like. Marine life was devastated, with a 57% reduction in the number of families (Sepkoski, 1986) and an estimated 96% extinction at the species level (Raup, 1979). Oceanic life suffered the most but terrestrial life forms were also greatly affected. There was a 77% reduction in the number of tetrapod families (Maxwell and Benton, 1987). All major groups of oceanic organisms were affected with the crinozoans (98%), anthozoans (96%), brachiopods (80%) and bryozoans (79%) suffering the greatest extinction (McKinney, 1987). The end of the Permian and beginning of the Triassic periods marked the single greatest extinction event the world has ever faced. Timing of the Extinction There are many questions regarding the timing of the extinction at the end of the Permian. One of the main questions was the even a catastrophy or gradual. There is evidence for both senarios. Some of

Extracting DNA from the Bacterium Escherichia coli

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Introduction Deoxyribonucleic acid is contained in all cells. The structure of DNA makes gene transmission possible. Since genes are segments of DNA, DNA must be able to make exact copies of itself to enable the next generation of cells to receive the same genes. The DNA molecule looks like a twisted ladder. Each "side" is a chain of alternating phosphate and deoxyribose sugar molecules. The "steps" are formed by bonded pairs of purine-pyrimidine bases. DNA contains four such bases the purines adenine (A) and guanine (G) and the pyrimidines cytosine (c) and thymine (T). The RNA molecule, markedly similar to DNA, usually consists of a single chain. The RNA chain contains ribose sugars instead of deoxyribose. In RNA, the pyrimidine uracil (U) replaces the thymine of DNA. DNA and RNA are made up of basic units called nucleotides. In DNA, each of these is composed of a phosphate, a deoxyribose sugar, and either A, T, G, or C. RNA nucleotides consist of a phosphate, a ribose sugar, and either A, U, G, or C. Nucleotide chains in DNA wind around one another to form a complete twist, or gyre, every ten nucleotides along the molecule. The two chains are held fast by hydrogen bonds linking A to T and C to G A always pairs with T (or with U in RNA); C always pairs with G. Sequences of the paired bases are the foundation of the genetic code. Thus, a portion of a double-stranded DNA molecule might read: A-T C-G G-C T-A G-C C-G A-T. When "unzipped," the left strand would read: ACGTGCA; the right strand: TGCACGT. DNA is the "master molecule" of the cell. It directs the synthesis of RNA. When RNA is being transcribed, or copied, from an unzipped segment of DNA, RNA nucleotides temporarily pair their bases with those of the DNA strand. In the preceding example, the left hand portion of DNA would transcribe a strand of RNA with the base sequence: UGCACGU. Genes and Protein Synthesis A genetic code guides the assembly of proteins. The code ensures that each protein is built from the proper sequence of amino acids. Genes transmit their protein-building instructions by transcribing a special type of RNA called messenger RNA (mRNA). This leaves the cell nucleus and moves to structures in the cytoplasm called ribosomes, where protein synthesis takes place. Cell biologists believe that DNA also builds a type of RNA called transfer RNA, which

Reptiles

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Reptiles are vertebrate, or backboned animals constituting the class Reptilia and are characterized by a combination of features, none of which alone could separate all reptiles from all other animals. The characteristics of reptiles are numerous, therefore can not be explained in great detail in this report. In no special order, the characteristics of reptiles are: cold-bloodedness; the presence of lungs; direct development, without larval forms as in amphibians; a dry skin with scales but not feathers or hair; an amniote egg; internal fertilization; a three or four-chambered heart; two aortic arches (blood vessels) carrying blood from the heart to the body, unlike mammals and birds that only have one; a metanephric kidney; twelve pairs of cranial nerves; and skeletal features such as limbs with usually five clawed fingers or toes, at least two spinal bones associated with the pelvis, a single ball-and-socket connection at the head-neck joint instead of two, as in advanced amphibians and mammals, and an incomplete or complete partition along the roof of the mouth, separating the food and air passageways so that breathing can continue while food is being chewed. These and other traditional defining characteristics of reptiles have been subjected to considerable modification in recent times. The extinct flying reptiles, called pterosaurs or pterodactyls, are now thought to have been warm-blooded and covered with hair. Also, the dinosaurs are also now considered by many authorities to have been warm-blooded. The earliest known bird, archaeopteryx, is now regarded by many to have been a small dinosaur, despite its covering of feathers The extinct ancestors of the mammals, the therapsids, or mammallike reptiles, are also believed to have been warm-blooded and haired. Proposals have been made to reclassify the pterosaurs, dinosaurs, and certain other groups out of the class Reptilia into one or more classes of their own. The class Reptilia is divided into 6 to 12 subclasses by different authorities. This includes living and extinct species. In addition, a number of these subclasses are completely extinct. The subclasses contain about 24 orders, but only 4 of these are still represented by living animals. Of the living orders of reptiles, two arose earlier than the age of reptiles, when dinosaurs were dominant. Tuataras, of the order Rhynchocephalia, are found only on New Zealand islands, whereas the equally ancient turtles, order Chelonia, occur nearly worldwide. The order Crocodilia emerged along with the dinosaurs. Snakes and lizards, order Squamata, are

Polar Bear

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
SPECIES- Ursus Maritimus, Polar Bear, lord of the Arctic. Lives in an area of five million square miles of snow and ice. From Siberia to Alaska and across Canada, Greenland and the Islands north of Norway, he is the master of all living things except man. It lives in the brutal cold, ice, and snow. The temperature can plunge down frequently to -40 degrees and sometimes even lower but that does not bother the polar bear because of its color-less skin and layer of insulation fat. Its range extending around the northern polar region. Necessities of Life-The polar bear eats mostly seals which he has to hunt. His trick is to wait by a breathing in the ice and when a seal comes up by that breathing hole, he grabs it so fast it knocks it unconscious and then he eats it. Other pray is a walrus calf or a musk ox stuck in snow, birds, eggs, fish, and dead whales. And sometimes in the summer it eats berries and grass. The polar bear has no water to drink so it only eats the skin and blubber, avoiding the meat. So by eating the blubber and leaving the meat the male bear is helping keep his body in balance with the surrounding environment. The bear would usually stay in a den or bury it self in the snow to avoid the suns ultra violent rays. Usually the pregnant female polar bear stays in the den. Food Chain-The polar bear finds its way on the top of its food chain. No predator on earth approaches the bear in size. The polar bear towers over everything else in his food chain. The only thing that could stop him is a human with a gun. Super Amazing Facts-The polar bear is well adapted to its special live style. The hairs of its thick coat are hollow, giving extra insulation against the bitter arctic cold. It also has an extra layer of insulating fat under its skin and the hairs on the polar bear are color less, when the sun hits them they look white. Polar bears are twice as big as lions or tigers, a typical adult male weighs half a ton and is five feet high at the shoulder. His paws are a fool wide. When he stands up straight, he can look an elephant in the eye. Explain- My species was endangered bad back

Leaf-cutting Ants

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
One of the most little known species of ants in North America is the leaf-cutter ant. This is mainly because it lives in tropical environments and it is not aggressive to animals or humans if not disturbed. The leaf cutting ant is a social insect. Alone the ant is virtually helpless but with the colony it can be a thing feared by animal and human alike. The leaf-cutting ants have a very important role in the tropical forest. They create and manipulate the environment around them. They also can do major damage. The leaf-cutting or fungus-growing ants are distributed from northern Texas to central Argentina. These ants are injurious since they cut the green vegetation from trees, shrubs and crops, and carry it into the nest, where they cultivate fungi on it. They have been known to denude a tree or ornamental plants in one night. It has been estimated they do $1 billion damage per year in North and South America today, these ants still cause millions of dollars in crop losses in many South American countries. Although primarily an agricultural pest, this insect on occasion may invade the home for cereals. In the United States, the Texas leaf-cutting ant, Atta texana , occurs in Texas and Louisiana. This ant is believed to cause a total yearly loss of $5 million in the United States (unison services. 1998). There are about 9,500 named species of ants. These ants are divided into 16 sub families and 300 genera, all which belong to the family called Formicidae, the family of ants (Hoyt. 1996). The leaf cutting ant belongs to the genus called Atta. There are fifteen different species of Atta and all are limited to the new world (Holldobler & Wilson, 1994). The leaf-cutter ant looks pretty much like a regular ant in North America except that it is a little bigger than most ants. Looking at the ant in the untrained eye a person usually perceives that it is a primitive organism. Looks can be deceiving. The leaf-cutter ant is a complex superorganism unique social, environmental, and food gathering behavior. The anatomy of the leaf-cutter ant is pretty simple. It has a one segment "waist" (pedicel) between thorax and abdomen. Sharp spines on waist and backward from head. Antennae 11-segmented very long and elbowed without distinct club. The legs are very long. This ant can be light to dark reddish brown (Smith.

The Humpback Whale

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
To look up into the mountains and see the steam rolling from a mountain stream on a cold winters morning is a beautiful sight. However, to look out over the horizon and see the white spray of salt water coming from the blow of a huge hump-back whale is much more exciting sight and a whole lot warmer. I lived in the mountains of Colorado for most of my childhood. The first time I had the opportunity to see the ocean was on a vacation to California, when I was about 15 years old. It was even better than I had dreamed it would be. The different animals in the ocean, the color of the water, and the warm sand between my toes was probably what led me to come to the islands of Hawaii. When I first saw the hump-back whale I was amazed at their huge size and how they could breach out of the water so gracefully. It is as if they were trying to play or show off. So when we were asked to choose a favorite animal, I had no problem deciding on the hump-back whale. The hump-back whale gets it's name from the distinctive hump in front of the dorsal fin and from the way it raises it's back high above water before diving. They are a member of the order Cetacea. This order is of aquatic mammals and the hump-back belongs to the suborder of the Mysticeti. The Mysticeti are the baleen whales which have three families and several species. The family in which the hump-back belongs is the Balaenopteridae, the true fin backed whale. The thing that separates this genus from the other fin-backed whales is the pectoral fins, which grow in lengths of about 5 meters (16.4 feet). This Genus is called Megaptera meaning great wing (Tinker 290). There was a controversy over the species name in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. In 1932, Remington Kellogg finally settled the matter with Megatera Novaeangliae (Cousteau 84). The common English name is the hump-back whale. The hump-back whale lives in both the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Since we live in the Pacific I'll be discussing the hump-backs of the North Pacific. They migrate from North to South. In the months of July through September they gather in the Aleutian Islands, Bering Sea or the Chukchi Sea. They head south for the winter.

Heart Disease

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
INTRODUCTION In today's society, people are gaining medical knowledge at quite a fast pace. Treatments, cures, and vaccines for various diseases and disorders are being developed constantly, and yet, coronary heart disease remains the number one killer in the world. The media today concentrates intensely on drug and alcohol abuse, homicides, AIDS and so on. What a lot of people are not realizing is that coronary heart disease actually accounts for about 80% of all sudden deaths. In fact, the number of deaths from heart disease approximately equals to the number of deaths from cancer, accidents, chronic lung disease, pneumonia and influenza, and others, COMBINED. One of the symptoms of coronary heart disease is angina pectoris. Unfortunately, a lot of people do not take it seriously, and thus not realizing that it may lead to other complications, and even death. THE HUMAN HEART In order to understand angina, one must know about our own heart. The human heart is a powerful muscle in the body which is worked the hardest. A double pump system, the heart consists of two pumps side by side, which pump blood to all parts of the body. Its steady beating maintains the flow of blood through the body day and night, year after year, non-stop from birth until death. The heart is a hollow, muscular organ slightly bigger than a person's clenched fist. It is located in the centre of the chest, under the breastbone above the sternum, but it is slanted slightly to the left, giving people the impression that their heart is on the left side of their chest. The heart is divided into two halves, which are further divided into four chambers: the left atrium and ventricle, and the right atrium and ventricle. Each chamber on one side is separated from the other by a valve, and it is the closure of these valves that produce the "lubb-dubb" sound so familiar to us. (see Fig. 1 - The Structure of the Heart) Like any other organs in our body, the heart needs a supply of blood and oxygen, and coronary arteries supply them. There are two main coronary arteries, the left coronary artery, and the right coronary artery. They branch off the main artery of the body, the aorta. The right coronary artery circles the right side and goes to the back of the heart. The left coronary artery further divides into the left circumflex and the left anterior descending

The Human Heart

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Abstract: Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary defines the heart as "the viscus of cardiac muscle that maintains the circulation of the blood". It is divided into four cavities; two atria and two ventricles. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs. From there the blood passes to the left ventricle, which forces it via the aorta, through the arteries to supply the tissues of the body. The right atrium receives the blood after it has passed through the tissues and has given up much of its oxygen. The blood then passes through the right ventricle into the lungs where it gets oxygenated. There are four major valves in the heart; the left atrioventricular valve (also known as the mitral or bicuspid valve), the right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid), aortic valve, and the pulmonary valve. The heart tissue itself is nourished by the blood in the coronary arteries.2 Position of the Heart Within the Body: The heart is placed obliquely in the chest. The two atria are directed upwards and backwards to the right and are at the level of the fifth through the eight dorsal vertebrae. The apex of the heart points downwards and forwards to the left and corresponds to the interspace between the fifth and sixth ribs, two inches below the left nipple. Its atrial border corresponds to a line drawn across the sternum on a level with the upper border of the third costal cartilage. Its lower border (apex) corresponds to a line drawn across the lower end of the same bone, near the xiphoid process. Its upper surface is rounded and convex, directed upwards and forwards, and formed mainly by the right ventricle and part of the left ventricle. The posterior surface of the heart is flattened and rests upon the diaphragm muscle. Of its two borders, the right is the longest and thinnest, the left is shorter but thicker and round. Size: In an adult, the heart measures about five inches in length, three and a half inches in the broadest part of its transverse diameter, and two and a half inches in its antero-posterior. The average weight in the male varies from ten to twelve ounces. In the female, the average weight is eight to ten ounces. The heart will continue to grow in size up to an advanced period of life. This growth is more obvious in men than in women.3 Circulation of Blood in an Adult: The heart is subdivided

Survival of the Stingray

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Imagine yourself 150,000 years in the future. Another ice age is in full force. Temperatures are much colder, vegetation has ceased to exist, along with several entire animal species. The lion, once the king of the jungle, is no more than an alley cat scavenging for food. The great white shark- reduced to the size of goldfish. A new predator is on the prowl. The stingray, once limited to shallow, sandy beaches, has evolved! With it's new adaptations the power of the stingray is unfurled, free to roam in the wide expanse of sea, air, and land. Many advantages have evolved in the once conservative stingray. From the large size of the present day animal, the stingray has been reduced in size and weight from an average of 12 feet, 60 pounds to 3 feet, 15 pounds to provide from speed, stealth, and agility. The broad flattened pectoral fins have grown a protective hard scale resistant to the hardest of an enemy's teeth, along with the secretion of a special enzyme that causes pain and damage along with a bitter taste to avoid being eaten. It's powerful tail has been lengthened to provide offensive coverage in a 360 degree area. Along with the sharp, barbed spines and deadly poisonous glands, the stingray is now a formidable opponent. With the decrease in food supply, the stingray has adapted with his environment. Formerly a sole marine animal, a stingray's diet has now included the usual fish and crustaceans to birds and small rodents. To achieve this new source of food, the stingray now has the capability to move on land in the form of a speedy slithering such as a snake might move. A set of lungs accompany this adaptation enabling the stingray to breathe on land as well as water. In addition to land and sea, if a stingray should swim swiftly to the surface and break out high above, his new capability to glide would take effect. With a limit of a few minutes the stingray cannot sustain continued flight. He would be able to act as a scavenger stealing away kills from other predators and returning to the murky depths. The bland coloring of his skin enables him to hide from the predators as his skin reflects off the colors surrounding his environment. In a land surrounded by ice and water, a hard nose tooth, similar to a tusk, has grown

Salinity Changes on the polychaete, Nereis succinea

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
I chose to experiment with the effects of salinity changes on the polychaete, Nereis succinea. Along with the other members of the group, Patty and Jeremy, I was curious to see whether the worms would engage in adaptive behavior when placed in a tank of water of foreign salinity, or whether they would simply continue changing osmotically until they reached equilibrium with the environment. The first step in our experiment was to simply observe the worms and get a "feel" for the ways in which they act. We did this on Wednesday, May 7, 1997 from 9:30am to 10:30am. Also on this day we learned how to mix and measure salinity, practiced weighing the worms, and deciding our exact schedule as far as when we would come in and for how long, etc. From what I observed, the polychaete is a salt-water worm that has adapted to live in estuaries. We kept the control tank at 20 parts per thousand to 24 parts per thousand, and the worms seemed very content and healthy at that level. The worms on which we experimented ranged in size from approximately four inches to approximately six inches. They weighed from 1.8 grams to 4.6 grams at the beginning of the experiment. They have a pinkish, almost salmon color to them, and on two opposite sides, they have these crimson hairs lined up in a row, stretching the entire length of their bodies (the hairs are less than an eighth of an inch long). If we were to call the two lines of hair "east and west", then on the "north and south" sides, there were dark lines that also stretched the entire length of their bodies. These were their primary blood vessels, and though we tried to locate the pulse that is supposed to conspicuously travel up and down this vessel, we were not able to l! ocate it, except once on one worm for less than 30 seconds. Also I often was not able to tell the difference between the head and the tail. Their actions were very basic. They seemed to like to stay still for the most part, hiding underneath the little bit of seaweed we put in the tank. We also put a glass tube at the bottom of the tank, thinking that they might try to crawl in there for safety, but we never saw them in there. Basically, they remained very still,

Chemical reactions

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Chemical reactions are the heart of chemistry. People have always known that they exist. The Ancient Greeks were the firsts to speculate on the composition of matter. They thought that it was possible that individual particles made up matter. Later, in the Seventeenth Century, a German chemist named Georg Ernst Stahl was the first to postulate on chemical reaction, specifically, combustion. He said that a substance called phlogiston escaped into the air from all substances during combustion. He explained that a burning candle would go out if a candle snuffer was put over it because the air inside the snuffer became saturated with phlogiston. According to his ideas, wood is made up of phlogiston and ash, because only ash is left after combustion. His ideas soon came upon some contradiction. When metal is burned, its ash has a greater mass than the original substance. Stahl tried to cover himself by saying that phlogiston will take away from a substance's mass or that it had a negative mass, which contradicted his original theories. In the Eighteenth Century Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, in France, discovered an important detail in the understanding of the chemical reaction combustion, oxigine (oxygen). He said that combustion was a chemical reaction involving oxygen and another combustible substance, such as wood. John Dalton, in the early Nineteenth Century, discovered the atom. It gave way to the idea that a chemical reaction was actually the rearrangement of groups of atoms called molecules. Dalton also said that the appearance and disappearance of properties meant that the atomic composition dictated the appearance of different properties. He also came up with idea that a molecule of one substance is exactly the same as any other molecule of the same substance. People like Joseph-Lois Gay-Lussac added to Dalton's concepts with the postulate that the volumes of gasses that react with each other are related (14 grams of nitrogen reacted with exactly three grams of hydrogen, eight grams of oxygen reacted to exactly one gram of hydrogen, etc.) Amedeo Avogadro also added to the understanding of chemical reactions. He said that all gasses at the same pressure, volume and temperature contain the same number of particles. This idea took a long time to be accepted. His ideas lead to the subscripts used in the formulas for gasses. From the work of these and many other chemists, we now have a mostly complete knowledge of chemical reactions. There are now

Plutonium: 'Our Country's Only Feasible Solution'

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Abstract: Should we begin to manufacture one of the most destructive and infamous substances on the face on the Earth once again? The engineers say yes, but the public says no. The United States stopped making this element with the ban on manufacturing nuclear weapons. But with the continuing problem with our ever diminishing energy sources, some want us to begin using more nuclear energy and less energy from natural resources. This paper is going to discuss what plutonium is, the advantages and disadvantages of its use, and why we should think about restarting our production of this useful element. After the United States dropped "Fat Man" and "Little Boy" on Japan ending World War II, the public has had some type of understanding about the power of plutonium and its devastating properties, but that is all anyone heard. After WWII, Americans started to think about what the atomic bomb could do to the U.S. and its people. When anyone mentioned plutonium or the word "nuclear" the idea of Hiroshima or Nagasaki being destroyed was the first thing people thought about. No one could even ponder the idea that it could be used for other more constructive things like sources of energy or to kept a person's heart beating. Then we started to build more reactors and produce more of the substance but mostly for our nuclear weapons programs. Along with reactors, sometimes comes a meltdown which can produce harmful effects if it isn't controlled quickly enough. After such instances as the Hanford, Washington reactor meltdown and the accident in the U.S.S.R. at the Chernobyl site, no one wanted to hear about the use of plutonium. The United States government banned nuclear testing and also ended the production of plutonium.(Ref. 5) Now we are in a dilemma. We are in need of future sources of energy to power our nation. We are running out of coal and oil to run our power plants.(Ref. 7) We also need it to further our space exploration program. People need to understand the advantages to using plutonium and that the disadvantages are not as catastrophic as they seem. With the turn of the century on its way, the reemergence of plutonium production will need to be a reality for us to continue our way of life. In 1941, a scientist at the University of California, Berkeley, discovered something that would change our planet forever. The man's

Niels Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Niels Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom, was the primary reason for the understanding of energy levels.Bohr was able to explain the bright line spectrum of hydrogen. Sparked by the recent discovery of the diffraction patterns, scientists believed

Representative Gases & Properties of Gases

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
1. State the five assumptions of the Kinetic-Molecular Theory of gases. a) Gases consist of large numbers of tiny particles. These particles, usually molecules or atoms, typically occupy a volume about 1000 times larger than occupied by the same number of particles in the liquid or solid state. Thus molecules of gases are much further apart than those of liquids or solids. Most of the volume occupied by a gas is empty space. This accounts for the lower density of gases compared to liquids and solids, and the fact that gases are easily compressible. b) The particles of a gas are in constant motion, moving rapidly in straight lines in all directions, and thus passes kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of particles overcomes the attractive forces between them except near the temperature at which the gas condenses and becomes a liquid. Gas particles travel in random directions at high speeds. c) The collisions between particles of a gas and between particles and container walls are elastic collisions. An elastic collision is one in which there is no net loss of kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is transferred between two particles during collisions, but the total kinetic energy of the two particles remains the same, at constant temperature and volume. d) There are no forces of attraction or repulsion between the particles of a gas. You can think of ideal gas molecules as behaving like small billiard balls. They move very fast, and when they collide they do not stick together, but immediately bounce apart. e) The average kinetic energy of the particles of a gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the gas. The kinetic energy of a particle (or any other moving object) is given by the equation: KE = 1/2mv2. Where m is the mass of the particle and v is the velocity. 2. List the five properties of gases (add the extra one too!) a) Expansion Gases do not have a definite shape of definite volume. They fill the entire volume of an container in which they are enclosed and assume its shape. A gas transferred from 1-L to a 2-L vessel will quickly expand to fill the entire 2-L volume. b) Fluidity Because the attractive forces between gas particles are negligible, gas particles glide easily past one another. This ability to flow causes gases to show mechanical behavior similar to that of liquids. Because liquids and gases flow, they are referred to collectively as

Your Bones in Space

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Osteoporosis: a condition characterized by an absolute decrease in the amount of bone present to a level below which it is capable of maintaining the structural integrity of the skeleton. To state the obvious, Human beings have evolved under Earth's gravity "1G". Our musculoskeleton system have developed to help us navigate in this gravitational field, endowed with ability to adapt as needed under various stress, strains and available energy requirement. The system consists of Bone a highly specialized and dynamic supporting tissue which provides the vertebrates its rigid infrastructure. It consists of specialized connective tissue cells called osteocytes and a matrix consisting of organic fibers held together by an organic cement which gives bone its tenacity, elasticity and its resilience. It also has an inorganic component located in the cement between the fibers consisting of calcium phosphate [85%]; Calcium carbonate [10%] ; others [5%] which give it the hardness and rigidity. Other than providing the rigid infrastructure, it protects vital organs like the brain], serves as a complex lever system, acts as a storage area for calcium which is vital for human metabolism, houses the bone marrow within its mid cavity and to top it all it is capable of changing its architecture and mass in response to outside and inner stress. It is this dynamic remodeling of bone which is of primary interest in microgravity. To feel the impact of this dynamicity it should be noted that a bone remodeling unit [a coupled phenomena of bone reabsorption and bone formation] is initiated and another finished about every ten seconds in a healthy adult. This dynamic system responds to mechanical stress or lack of it by increasing the bone mass/density or decreasing it as per the demand on the system. -eg; a person dealing with increased mechanical stress will respond with increased mass / density of the bone and a person who leads a sedentary life will have decreased mass/density of bone but the right amount to support his structure against the mechanical stresses she/she exists in. Hormones also play a major role as seen in postmenopausal females osteoporosis (lack of estrogens) in which the rate of bone reformation is usually normal with the rate of bone re-absorption increased. In Skeletal system whose mass represent a dynamic homeostasis in 1g weight-bearing,when placed in microgravity for any extended period of time requiring practically no weight bearing, the regulatory system of bone/calcium reacts by

Theories of The Origin of the Moon

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The Moon is the only natural satellite of Earth. The distance from Earth is about 384,400km with a diameter of 3476km and a mass of 7.35*1022kg. Through history it has had many names: Called Luna by the Romans, Selene and Artemis by the Greeks. And of course, has been known through prehistoric times. It is the second brightest object in the sky after the Sun. Due to its size and composition, the Moon is sometimes classified as a terrestrial "planet" along with Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Origin of the Moon Before the modern age of space exploration, scientists had three major theories for the origin of the moon: fission from the earth; formation inearth orbit; and formation far from earth. Then, in 1975, having studied moonrocks and close-up pictures of the moon, scientists proposed what has come to be regarded as the most probable of the theories of formation, planetesimalimpact or giant impact theory. Formation by Fission from the Earth The modern version of this theory proposes that the moon was spun off from the earth when the earth was young and rotating rapidly on its axis. This idea gained support partly because the density of the moon is the same as that of the rocks just below the crust, or upper mantle, of the earth. A major difficulty with this theory is that the angular momentum of the earth, in order to achieve rotational instability, would have to have been much greater than the angular momentum of the present earth-moon system. Formation in Orbit Near the Earth This theory proposes that the earth and moon, and all other bodies of the solar system, condensed independently out of the huge cloud of cold gases and solid particles that constituted the primordial solar nebula. Much of this material finally collected at the center to form the sun. Formation Far from Earth According to this theory, independent formation of the earth and moon, as in the above theory, is assumed; but the moon is supposed to have formed at a different place in the solar system, far from earth. The orbits of the earth and moon then, it is surmised, carried them near each other so that the moon was pulled into permanent orbit about the earth. Planetesimal Impact First published in 1975, this theory proposes that early in the earth's history, well over 4 billion years ago, the earth was struck by a large body called a planetesimal, about the

Geosynchronous Orbits

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Geosynchronous Orbits + Geostationary Orbits Webster's Dictionary defines a Geostationary orbit as of, relating to, or being a satellite that travels above Earth's equator from west to east at an altitude of approximately 35,900 kilometers (22,300 miles) and at a speed matching that of Earth's rotation, thus remaining stationary in relation to Earth. 2. Of, relating to, or being the

Black Holes

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Within our galaxy alone, there are millions upon millions of stars. Within our universe, there are millions upon millions of galaxies. Humans have known the existance of stars since they have had eyes. Although interpretations may have differed on what they were, they were always thought of as white glowing specks in the sky, but the mystery does not lie within what we can see, but what we can not see. There are billions of stars lighting the darkness of our universe, but the question lies in what happens when one of these enormous lamps burns out. Upon many speculations, one of the most facinating is the black hole theory. Not any star can become a Black Hole. For instance, the possibility of our sun becoming a black hole is highly unlikely, simply because it is too small. Only a very large star has the potential to become a black hole. The definitions of black boles are somewhat sceptical. Generally, a black hole is an area of super-concentrated mass. So concentrated, that no object can escape its gravitational pull. In other words, once you get caught by it's graviational pull, you aren't getting out again. The velocity you need to break away from a graviational pull is called the "escape velocity". Roughly, earth's escape velocity is about 25,000 M.P.H. (11.2 kilometers/second). Earth's mass is nothing compared to the mass of a star that has the potential to become a black hole. A black hole has so much mass in such a small area, that its escape velocity is greater than the speed of light. So if were all living on earth, and earth was a black hole, we would need to go at the speed of light in order to get to the moon (and not to mention a lot of milk so our bones could support 800 million ton human beings). Even though a black hole's gravitational pull is enormous, it does have its boundry. This boundry is called the "event horizon". This event horizon is the point where the black hole's gravitational pull begins. Once you cross the event horizon, there is no turning back. As stated before, the escape velocity of a black hole exceeds the speed of light, and since going faster than the speed of light is impossible, so is escaping a black hole's gravitational pull. This explains why all the black holes do not swallow everything

Werner Heisenberg and the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Werner Heisenberg, born in the dawn of the twentieth century became one of its greatest physicists; he is also among its most controversial. While still in his early twenties, he was among the handful of bright, young men who created quantum mechanics, the basic physics of the atom, and he became a leader of nuclear physics and elementary particle research. He is best known for his uncertainty principle, a component of the so-called Copenhagen interpretation of the meaning, and uses of quantum mechanics. Through his successful life, he lived through two lost World Wars, Soviet Revolution, military occupation, two republics, political unrest, and Hitler's Third Reich. He was not a Nazi, and like most scientists of his day he tried not to become involved in politics. He played a prominent role in German nuclear testing during the World War II era. At age twenty-five he received a full professorship and won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 at the age of thirty-two. He climbed quickly to the top of his field beginning at the University of Munich when his interest in theoretical physics was sparked Heisenberg was born the son of August Heisenberg in Würzburg, Germany on December 5, 1901. August Heisenberg was a professor of Greek at the University of Munich. His grandfather was a middle-class craftsman who's hard work paid enough to afford a good education for August Heisenberg. The successfulness of August Heisenberg allowed him to support his family well. The professorship at the University of Munich put them in the upper middle-class elite, and was paid three times the salary of skilled workers. Through his life Werner Heisenberg was pestered with health problems. At the age of five, he nearly died with a lung infection which helped him get a little preferential treatment from his parents. During his early years, Werner was in constant competition with his brother Erwin which caused friction. The Heisenberg family were accomplished musicians. Every evening they would sit and practice together. August was on the piano, Erwin played the violin, and Werner played the cello. Their mother insisted that she had no musical talent as an excuse to not be involved in the male competition. Later Werner also learned the piano and used his musical talents as a social vehicle during the course of his life. This manly competition carried out in many other activities in the house. Sometimes August Heisenberg would

Millenium Bug

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The year 2000 is practically around the corner, promising a new era of greatness and wonder . . . as long as you don't own a computer or work with one. The year 2000 is bringing a Pandora's Box of gifts to the computer world, and the latch is slowly coming undone. The year 2000 bug is not really a "bug" or "virus," but is more a computer industry mistake. Many of the PC's, mainframes, and software out there are not designed or programmed to compute a future year ending in double zeros. This is going to be a costly "fix" for the industry to absorb. In fact, Mike Elgan who is the editor of Windows Magazine, says " . . . the problem could cost businesses a total of $600 billion to remedy." (p. 1) The fallacy that mainframes were the only machines to be affected was short lived as industry realized that 60 to 80 million home and small business users doing math or accounting etc. on Windows 3.1 or older software, are just as susceptible to this "bug." Can this be repaired in time? For some, it is already too late. A system that is devised to cut an annual federal deficit to 0 by the year 2002 is already in "hot water." Data will become erroneous as the numbers "just don't add up" anymore. Some PC owners can upgrade their computer's BIOS (or complete operating system) and upgrade the OS (operating system) to Windows 95, this will set them up for another 99 years. Older software however, may very well have to be replaced or at the very least, upgraded. The year 2000 has become a two-fold problem. One is the inability of the computer to adapt to the MM/DD/YY issue, while the second problem is the reluctance to which we seem to be willing to address the impact it will have. Most IS (information system) people are either unconcerned or unprepared. Let me give you a "short take" on the problem we all are facing. To save storage space and perhaps reduce the amount of keystrokes necessary in order to enter the year to date-most IS groups have allocated two digits to represent the year. For example, "1996" is stored as "96" in data files and "2000" will be stored as "00." These two-digit dates will be on millions of files used as input for millions of

The Evolution of Apple Computer

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Let's take a trip back in time and review the evolution of a computer company. It's not IBM or Microsoft. This company is Apple Computers, Incorporated. In the year 1976, before most people even thought about buying a computer for their homes. Back then the computer community added up to a few brainy hobbyist. So when Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs sold a van and two programmable calculators for thirteen hundred dollars and started Apple Computers, Inc., in Jobs garage, the reach for success seemed far. But these two young business men, Wozniak 26 years old and Jobs 21 years old, had a vision. "Computers aren't for nerds anymore," they announced. "Computers are going to be the bicycle of the mind. Low cost computers for everyone." From the first day on the founders of Apple kept their vision intact, and they spoke it at every turn. They only hired people into the company that had the same visions as they did. In early 1976 Wozniak and Jobs finish work on a preassembled computer circuit board. It has no Product keyboard, case, sound or graphics. They call it the Apple I. They form the Apple Computer Company on April Fool's Day and sold the Apple I board for $666.66 at the Home brew Computer Club in Palo Alto, California. In 1977 the Apple II is available to the general public. Fully assembled and pretested, it includes 4K of standard memory, and comes equipped with two game paddles and a demo cassette. The price is $1,298. Customers use their own TV set as a monitor and store programs on audio cassette recorders. Compare this price with computers today. The price about the same, but the computer has changed tremendously. In 1979 Apple II+ is introduced, available with 48K of memory and a new auto-start ROM for easier startup and screen editing for $1,195. Apple II Pascal is also released. In 1980 Apple FORTRAN introduced and proves to be a catalyst for high-level technical and educational applications. Apple III announced at the National Computer Conference. It has a new operating system, a built-in disk controller and four peripheral slots priced at $3,495, the Apple III is the most advanced system in the company's history. Product In 1981 Accessory Products Division formed to handle production of printers, modems and other peripherals. The Apple Language Card is introduced. It allows Apple II users to run programs in either Pascal, FORTRAN

New Eye Tracking Techniques Improve Realism Of Aircraft Simulators

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
A simulated flight environment for pilot training may soon be made more realistic through the use of eye-tracking technology developed by researchers at the University of Toronto's Institute of Biomedical Engineering (IMBE). Many safety and cost benefits are obtained by training aircraft pilots under simulated conditions, but to be effective the simulation must be convicingly realistic. At present, th e training facilities use large domes and gimballed projectors, or an array of video screens, to display computer-generated images. But these installations are very expensive and image resolution is low. Further, it would take an enormous amount of addi to improve image quality significantly throughout the whole viewed scene. However, based on the visual properties of the eye, realism can be obtained by providing a high-resolution 'area of interest' insert within a large, low-resolution field of view. If the image-generating computer 'knows' where the pilot's fixation is, it mage there. The technology to make this possible was developed by a research team headed by Professor Richard Frecker and Professor Moshe Eizenman. The work was carried out in collaboration with CAE Electronics Ltd. of Montreal with financial support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. Their eye-tracker can record and analyze accurately up to 500 eye positions per second. The system works by means of capturing and processing the reflections of a low-level beam o f invisible infra-red light shone onto the eye. Multi-element arrays capture the image of the eye and digitize the information, which is then processed in real time by a fast, dedicated signal processing unit. The difference in position between the ligh tre of the pupil reveals the instantaneous direction of gaze. Developments by the IBME team have significantly increased the speed of signal processing in addition to enhancing accuracy of eye position estimates. Eizenman believes that "these improvements make our eye-tracker very effective in monitoring the large G-force environment where the pilot tends to make larger eye movements because of contraints which exist on movements of his head". In a new generation of aircraft simulators, under development by CAE Electronics Ltd. of Montreal, a head tracker which tells the direction of the pilot's head is mounted on top of the helmet. The eye tracker is mounted on the front of the helmet, and is ll exactly where the pilot's eye is fixating. Frecker said that "successful integration of our eye tracker into the novel helmet-mounted CAE flight simulator would result in a

How Can Artificial Intelligence Help Us?

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Recently, the media has spent an increasing amount of broadcast time on new technology. The focus of high-tech media has been aimed at the flurry of advances concerning artificial intelligence (AI). What is artificial intelligence and what is the media talking about? Are these technologies beneficial to our society or mere novelties among business and marketing professionals? Medical facilities, police departments, and manufacturing plants have all been changed by AI but how? These questions and many others are the concern of the general public brought about by the lack of education concerning rapidly advancing computer technology. Artificial intelligence is defined as the ability of a machine to think for itself. Scientists and theorists continue to debate if computers will actually be able to think for themselves at one point (Patterson 7). The generally accepted theory is that computers do and will think more in the future. AI has grown rapidly in the last ten years chiefly because of the advances in computer architecture. The term artificial intelligence was actually coined in 1956 by a group of scientists having their first meeting on the topic (Patterson 6). Early attempts at AI were neural networks modeled after the ones in the human brain. Success was minimal at best because of the lack of computer technology needed to calculate such large equations. AI is achieved using a number of different methods. The more popular implementations comprise neural networks, chaos engineering, fuzzy logic, knowledge based systems, and expert systems. Using any one of the aforementioned design structures requires a specialized computer system. For example, Anderson Consulting applies a knowledge based system to commercial loan officers using multimedia (Hedburg 121). Their system requires a fast IBM desktop computer. Other systems may require even more horsepower using exotic computers or workstations. Even more exotic is the software that is used. Since there are very few applications that are pre-written using AI, each company has to write it's own software for the solution to the problem. An easier way around this obstacle is to design an add-on. The company FuziWare makes several applications that act as an addition to a larger application. FuziCalc, FuziQuote, FuziCell, FuziChoice, and FuziCost are all products that are use! d as management decision support systems for other off-the shelf applications (Barron 111). In order to tell that AI is present we must be able to measure the intelligence being used. For a relative scale of

Artificial Life

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Artificial life (commonly called a-life) is the term applied collectively to attempts being made to develop mathematical models and computer simulations of the ways in which living organisms develop, grow, and evolve. Researchers in this burgeoning field hope to gain deeper insights into the nature of organic life as well as into the further possibilities of COMPUTER science and robotics (see ROBOT). A-life techniques are also being used to explore the origins and chemical processes of metabolism. Some investigators have even proposed that some digital "life" in computers might already be considered a real life form. Background The term artificial life was coined in the 1980s by Christopher Langdon, a computer scientist at Los Alamos National Laboratory and the Santa Fe Institute. Langdon organized the first experimental workshop on the subject at Santa Fe in 1987. Since then other a-life conferences have taken place, drawing increasingly wider attention and a growing number of participants. Theoretical studies of a-life, however, had been in progress long before the 1980s. Most notably, the Hungarian-born U.S. mathematician John VON NEUMANN, one of the pioneers of computer science, had begun to explore the nature of very basic a-life formats called cellular automata (see AUTOMATA, THEORY OF) in the 1950s. Cellular automata are imaginary mathematical "cells"-analogous to checkerboard squares-that can be made to simulate physical processes by subjecting them to certain simple rules called algorithms (see ALGORITHM). Before his death, von Neumann had developed a set of algorithms by which a cellular automaton-a box shape with a very long tail-could "reproduce" itself. Another important predecessor of a-life research was Dutch biologist Aristid Lindenmeyer. Interested in the mathematics of plant growth, Lindenmeyer found in the 1960s that through the use of a few basic algorithms-now called Lindenmeyer systems, or L-systems-he could model biochemical processes as well as tracing the development of complex biological forms such as flowers. Computer-graphics programs now make use of L-systems to yield realistic three-dimensional images of plants. The significance of Lindenmeyer's contribution is evident in the fact that so-called "genetic algorithms" are now basic to research into a-life as well as many other areas of interest. Genetic algorithms, first described by computer scientist John Holland of the University of Michigan in the 1970s, are comparable to L-systems. A computer worker trying to answer some question about a-life sets up a system-an algorithm-by which the computer itself rapidly grades the multiple possible answers that it has produced to the

The Computer

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Only once in a lifetime will a new invention come about to touch every aspect of our lives. Such a device that changes the way we work, live, and play is a special one, indeed. A machine that has done all this and more now exists in nearly every business in the U.S. and one out of every two households (Hall, 156). This incredible invention is the computer. The electronic computer has been around for over a half-century, but its ancestors have been around for 2000 years. However, only in the last 40 years has it changed the American society. From the first wooden abacus to the latest high-speed microprocessor, the computer has changed nearly every aspect of people's lives for the better. The very earliest existence of the modern day computer's ancestor is the abacus. These date back to almost 2000 years ago. It is simply a wooden rack holding parallel wires on which beads are strung. When these beads are moved along the wire according to "programming" rules that the user must memorize, all ordinary arithmetic operations can be performed (Soma, 14). The next innovation in computers took place in 1694 when Blaise Pascal invented the first "digital calculating machine". It could only add numbers and they had to be entered by turning dials. It was designed to help Pascal's father who was a tax collector (Soma, 32). In the early 1800's, a mathematics professor named Charles Babbage designed an automatic calculation machine. It was steam powered and could store up to 1000 50-digit numbers. Built in to his machine were operations that included everything a modern general-purpose computer would need. It was programmed by-and stored data on-cards with holes punched in them, appropriately called ÒpunchcardsÓ. His inventions were failures for the most part because of the lack of precision machining techniques used at the time and the lack of demand for such a device (Soma, 46). After Babbage, people began to lose interest in computers. However, between 1850 and 1900 there were great advances in mathematics and physics that began to rekindle the interest (Osborne, 45). Many of these new advances involved complex calculations and formulas that were very time consuming for human calculation. The first major use for a computer in the U.S. was during the 1890 census. Two men, Herman Hollerith and James Powers, developed a new punched-card system that could automatically read information on cards without human

A Computerized World

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Since the first computer was made in the late fifties, the technology has developed extremely. Computers which took the place of a living-room then, are now being made in creditcard-formats. More and more areas are being taken over by the computer. As computers are capable of handling large amounts of data in a very short time, they are well suited for wordprocessing. I guess that it won't be long till all the paper-archives are replaced by magnetic tapes and diskettes. A diskette can contain much more data than a written page, and it takes less place It is possible to get the Norwegian telephone book on just one diskette. In near future, a new area will be taken over by computers, namely maps. Different routes are stored on one single compact-disk. Imagine, simply insert the CD into the CD-driver in your car, and tell the computer where to go. The rest will be done automatically. This will be a safer, faster, and more comfortable way to travel. Another new area, called "virtual reality" is currently being tested. This is a way to simulate reality on a monitor. In order to feel this so-called reality you have to wear special electronic glasses and an electronic suit. Fastened to the suit are sensors, which send information to the main computer. This computer works with the data and displays them on the electronic spectacles. This is a technique which use three-dimentional views, therefore the scenery seems incredibly realistic. If you want to be a boxer, simply change the scenery on the main computer, and you are in the ring. Today, many kids have got video games. You could say these games are the present's answer to ludo and monopoly. In a way, it is a great advantage that the kids are being presented to computors at an early age, because they will definitely have to use them later, when they start to work. In the future there will be few occupations which won't use computors, one way or another. But the videogames are often being presented as something negative, which hinder the kids from doing homework and other more useful activities. This partially true, if they do much of it. But generally, I think the young people's contact with computers is positive. In Norway today, it is getting more common to have a computer at home. You can use a personal computer to keep household-budgets or other economics.

Computers

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
A common misconception about computers is that they are smarter than humans. Actually, the degree of a computer¹s intelligence depends on the speed of its ignorance. Today¹s complex computers are not really intelligent at all. The intelligence is in the people who design them. Therefore, in order to understand the intelligence of computers, one must first look at the history of computers, the way computers handle information, and, finally, the methods of programming the machines. The predecessor to today¹s computers was nothing like the machines we use today. The first known computer was Charles Babbage¹s Analytical Engine; designed in 1834. (Constable 9) It was a remarkable device for its time. In fact, the Analytical Engine required so much power and would have been so much more complex than the manufacturing methods of the time, it could never be built. No more than twenty years after Babbage¹s death, Herman Hollerith designed an electromechanical machine that used punched cards to tabulate the 1890 U.S. Census. His tabulation machine was so successful, he formed IBM to supply them. (Constable 11) The computers of those times worked with gears and mechanical computation. Unlike today¹s chip computers, the first computers were non-programmable, electromechnical machines. No one would ever confuse the limited power of those early machines with the wonder of the human brain. An example was the ENIAC, or Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. It was a huge, room-sized machine, designed to calculate artillery firing tables for the military. (Constable 9) ENIAC was built with more than 19,000 vacuum tubes, nine times the amount ever used prior to this. The internal memory of ENIAC was a paltry twenty decimal numbers of ten digits each. (Constable 12) (Today¹s average home computer can hold roughly 20,480 times this amount.) Today, the chip-based computer easily packs the power of more than 10,000 ENIACs into a silicon chip the size of an infant¹s fingertip. (Reid 64) The chip itself was invented by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce in 1958, but their crude devices looked nothing like the sleek, paper-thin devices common now. (Reid 66) The first integrated circuit had but four transistors and was half an inch long and narrower than a toothpick. Chips found in today¹s PCs, such as the Motorola 68040, cram more than 1.2 million transistors onto a chip half an inch square. (Poole 136) The ENIAC was an extremely expensive, huge and complex machine, while PCs now are shoebox-sized gadgets

Computer Viruses

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Introduction In the past decade, computer and networking technology has seen enormous growth. This growth however, has not come without a price. With the advent of the "Information Highway", as it's coined, a new methodology in crime has been created. Electronic crime has been responsible for some of the most financially devastating victimizations in society. In the recent past, society has seen malicious editing of the Justice Department web page (1), unauthorized access into classified government computer files, phone card and credit card fraud, and electronic embezzlement. All these crimes are committed in the name of "free speech." These new breed of criminals claim that information should not be suppressed or protected and that the crimes they commit are really not crimes at all. What they choose to deny is that the nature of their actions are slowly consuming the fabric of our country's moral and ethical trust in the information age. Federal law enforcement agencies, as well as commercial computer companies, have been scrambling around in an attempt to "educate" the public on how to prevent computer crime from happening to them. They inform us whenever there is an attack, provide us with mostly ineffective anti-virus software, and we are left feeling isolated and vulnerable. I do not feel that this defensive posture is effective because it is not pro-active. Society is still being attacked by highly skilled computer criminals of which we know very little about them, their motives, and their tools of the trade. Therefore, to be effective in defense, we must understand how these attacks take place from a technical stand-point. To some degree, we must learn to become a computer criminal. Then we will be in a better position to defend against these victimizations that affect us on both the financial and emotional level. In this paper, we will explore these areas of which we know so little, and will also see that computers are really extensions of people. An attack on a computer's vulnerabilities are really an attack on peoples' vulnerabilities. Today, computer systems are under attack from a multitude of sources. These range from malicious code, such as viruses and worms, to human threats, such as hackers and phone "phreaks." These attacks target different characteristics of a system. This leads to the possibility that a particular system is more susceptible to certain kinds of attacks. Malicious code, such as viruses and worms, attack a system

Computer Technology

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
A computer is an electronic device that can receive a set of instructions or program and the carry out this program by performing calculations on numerical data or by compiling and correlating other forms of information. ("Computer" Encarta). It also performs calculations and processes information with astonishing speed and precision. Computer Technology has improved our lives. It will continue to affect our future which will lead to an easier, less complicated lifestyle, with more job opportunities and their benefits. ("Computer." America On-line). The modern world of high technology could not have come about except for the development of the computer. (Astle 1). Different types and sizes of computers find uses throughout society in the storage and handling of data, from secret government files to banking transactions to private household accounts. ("Computer" Encarta). Research and development in the computer world moves simultaneously along two-paths hardware designs and software innovations work in each are alternately influences the other.("The Future Of Computers" America On-line) Computers help people in many different ways, but many people prefer to use paper and pencil to write and to use folders and file cabinets to organize there papers. ("The Future of Computers." America On-line.) Many people in the world use computers to make their lives easier. Such advances computer technology will benefit us all. People use computers for research, organization, writing, communication for personal or business matters and even to look up stock updates. (Astle 786). Whether it is personal or business, computers can help make our daily life easier. Typing is quicker and easier and its also a lot neater than hand writing. When you type on a computer you can look at them and open them a lot faster than having a folder of papers you have to carry around where ever you go. (Masters 654). Computers can also help with editing a paper, they can even check spelling and grammar. Typing on a computer today is probably the most common way people write there research papers, reports and other documents for school and business.("How Computers Make Your Life Easier" America On-line). Families can use computers to keep in touch with each other through E-mail.They help people talk with others all around the world, using different services and methods. ("Information Superhighway." America On-line). Since computers are used all over the world for research, almost all libraries and museums are based on computers. ("How Computers Make Your Life Easier" America On-line).

CPU Internal Organisations

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The input/output (I/O) interface, bus structures, microprocessor, memories and peripherals (also known as external or I/O devices) are the major components of a computer system. These components constantly trade information and instructions to complete assigned operations. With the exception of the peripherals, the ongoing communication between components is conducted within the system through interconnections or paths called buses. Peripherals such as keyboards, add-in cards (including frame grabbers), monitors, modems and printers are alternatively connected to the system through the I/O interface. The I/O connection features a communication line to send and receive data between the system and peripherals. Figure 1 illustrates the standard microprocessor-based PC architecture outlined above. Note: the peripherals' link to the system through the I/O interface rather than directly through the system's host bus. The primary purpose of a system's host bus is to connect components and allow them to communicate. To achieve this, the host bus is composed of three types of communication lines. An address bus is a one-way path that allows the microprocessor to specify which of the various locations in the memories and in the I/O interface it is accessing. Using this path, the microprocessor can select a memory address from which to acquire or in which to store data. The CPU also queries the I/O interface and devices using the address bus to specify input and output locations. A data bus carries the actual data between the microprocessor, memories and the I/O interface. Because the data bus is bidirectional, information can be both sent and received on these lines. A control bus handles the arbitration and differentiation between data coming in and data going out of different components by transmitting read, write and other control signals. In evaluating bus architecture, our primary concern is with transfers occurring on the data bus. The data bus is responsible for moving the bulk of information that travels through a system. And the data bus design ultimately determines how efficiently that data will flow. Defining features of the data bus include the size or bandwidth of the bus, the speed of the bus, and the location of the bus within the system. It helps to think of the data bus as a gateway through which a certain amount of information can pass. The bus contains a clock that indicates the speed at which data can move through the gateway. The path size or width of the bus indicates the

The Future Of The Internet

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
It's on television, in magazines, newspapers, and in our schools. Everywhere you go you hear about the Internet. Dubbed "The Information Superhighway," one might think that this network of millions of computers around the globe is as fast and as captivating as television, but with more and more users logging on everyday and staying on longer and longer, this "Information Superhighway" could be perhaps more correctly referred to as a clogged Los-Angeles expressway at lunch hour. Users are often frustrated at busy signals and slow speeds. The corporate giant, America Online, Inc, has recently been the target of several lawsuits over this because when it changed it's pricing plan, so many new users came on, and so many people started staying on longer, that it's system couldn't handle the strain and would run very slow and give busy signals to almost everyone that tried to log on. As a result people started staying online because they were afraid that if they logged off, they would never get back on. This forced America Online to upgrade enormous amounts of equipment, lease new telephone lines, and issue commercials apologizing for the whole predicament. They even started giving refunds to users who were never able to get on during the troubled ordeal. Some people are predicting, because of the length of Internet calls and the amount of bandwidth the calls take, that one day in the not so distant future, the entire telephone network, or at least a great portion of it, will cease to function, and all telephone calls will fail to connect. This idea is referred to by some as the "Gridlock Theory." Others advise that steps can be taken to avoid such a disaster, such as upgrading phone lines and limiting Internet usage. Following the gridlock idea is Ethernet creator Bob Metcalfe, who believes that the slowdowns will only get worse. "We recently had an outage... (that) denied 400,00 people access to the Internet, in its entirety, for thirteen hours. I expect even worse cases to develop this year." (Hunter, the Internet.) It is estimated that twenty-five to thirty million users currently are on the Internet. According to a recent study by Pacific Bell, and average Internet call lasts five times as longer as the average regular telephone call. 10 percent of the Internet calls last 6 hours or longer. This can cause switches to overload and, in turn, cause telephone calls to fail.

The Internet: How it Works and How it Effects the World

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Many people do not understand what the Internet is the power that it has over the world. The Internet is an extraordinary learning and entertainment tool that, when used properly, can significantly enhance a user's ability to gather information. Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) started the Internet. It was a project under taken by the Department Of Defense (DOD) in 1969. It started as an experiment to link together DOD and military research including Universities doing military-funded research. "The reliable networking part involved dynamic rerouting." (Levine 12) If one of the computers was under enemy attack, the information could be automatically transferred to other links. Fortunately, the Net is not usually under enemy attack. The ARPANET was very successful, and every university in the country wanted to sign up. Because so many people wanted to use the Net, ARPANET started getting hard to manage, especially with many university sites on it. Therefore, it was broken into two parts: MILNET, which had all the military sites, and ARPANET, which had all the nonmilitary sites. "The two networks remained connected, however, thanks to a technical scheme called IP (Internet Protocol), which enabled traffic to be routed from one net to another as needed. All the networks connected by IP in the Internet speak IP, so they can all exchange messages." (Levine 12) Even though there were only two networks at that time, IP was made to allow thousands of networks. The IP is designed so that every computer on an IP network is compatible. That means any machine can communicate with any other machine. The Internet, also called the Net, is the world's largest computer network. The Internet is the "network of all networks." (Levine 7) The networks are connected to big companies like AT&T, as well as to home computers. About 1,000 networks join each month. Every computer that is attached to the Internet is called a host. Hosts can be super computers with thousands of users, regular PC's with only a couple of users, or specialized computers, like routers that connect networks together or to terminal servers that let terminals dial in and connect to other hosts. Each computer has its own host number. "Being computers, the kind of numbers hosts like are 32-bit binary numbers." (Hayden 32) Here is an example of a binary number: 1011010010010100100100101000 Binary numbers are easier to remember by breaking them up into eight 4-bit groups. "Then each group is

Internet battle between phreaks and administrators

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Thesis: Even from it's humble beginnings, the Internet has always been a battlefield between phreaks and administrators The Internet is a wondrous place. Practically anything you could ever want is available on the Net. It's like a big city, it has the highly prestigious areas, and the sex-ridden slums. It has the upstanding citizens, and it has the criminals. On the Net, crime is more abundant than in a large city, though, mainly because of the difficulties in tracking and prosecuting offenders. Even from its beginnings, the Internet has always been a battlefield between phreaks and administrators. The Internet hasn't always been a public forum. In fact, the Internet has been around for years. The Internet is just a new fad ("The More I Learn" A1). The Internet originally began as DARPANET, a government-created network, which was designed for defense communications. The Net structure is such that it could survive a nuclear war ("Internet History"). The creation of the Net can not be blamed for the existence of hackers though, hackers are older than the Net itself, but the Net is the largest 'hacker haven' today (Spencer, "Hacking McDonalds" 6). The growth of the Net since its creation has been nothing less than astounding. In the 25-plus years since its creation, the Net now has over thirty million users using four million sites worldwide. Estimates rate the growth of the Net anywhere from ten to fifteen percent per month (Spencer, "Hacking McDonalds" 6). The Internet was first released to major universities in the United States of America. Since then, the universities have offered connections to small business, service providers, and even to the individual user. Sometimes these connections cost a fortune, and sometimes they can be obtained for free ("Internet History"). Although some of the original universities have dropped off the Net for various reasons, every major university in the United States, and now, most others in the world, have a connection to the Internet (Quittner 61). Although it isn't easy for an individual to get a direct connection to the Net, many private institutions are getting connections. This is mainly due to the fact that in order to support the very high speed of the Net, a fast computer is needed and a fast connection. A fast computer can cost in the tens of thousands of dollars, at least, and a fast connection can cost twenty thousand dollars or more, followed by a few

HAARP

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
HAARP is an extremely low frequency radio wave generator. It stands for High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program. It is a massive antennae array up in Alaska on the Copper River Basin. It's altitude fluctuates between 1000 and 3000 feet above sea level. It is operated by the US military, more specifically the Navy and Air Force. It operates between 2.8 and 10 MHz. It was also voted one of the 10 most under reported news stories of the year by journalists. Scientific Perspectives HAARP is an HF (High Frequency) generator. It generates frequency's directly above the AM band and below the VHF (Very High Frequency) or TV band. It will zap the Ionosphere which is between 40 and 600 miles above the earth's surface. The ionosphere helps to shield out electromagnetic waves from space that are harmful to life on earth. There are other ionospheric heaters located throughout the world. This specific one differs though from the others in that it concentrates all the energy on one specific spot. This causes a wide beam to focus in on a small area like when you use a piece of glass to start a fire. The others start as a small beam and grows into a bigger area causing the amount of the beam to hit an area to be weaker than when it starts out. The electromagnetic waves then bounce off the ionosphere and radiate back down on the earth. These waves penetrate down to the bottom of the ocean depths. The HAARP project is expected to generate over 1 billion watts when it is completed. It is capable of delivering one watt per square centimeter which can cause the ionosphere to increase and decrease in altitude. Weather modification is also theoretically possible with HAARP. It can cause one of earth's major weather modifiers, the jet stream, to change in direction by causing plumes of atmospheric particles. Another effect is the possibility of raising or lowering large amounts of the earth's atmosphere. This could cause certain areas of the atmosphere to be filled with air or depleted of air. Large amounts of energy could possibly be sent great distances with this technology. Another technological possibility is to spray large area's of the earth with varying wave frequencies and change the frequency. This includes bombarding the frequency of the one that the human brains operate on. You can then cause people to feel a certain

Current Free Speech Doctrine: Will It Work on the Internet?

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The Internet offers a much greater potential for interactive communication between information senders and receivers than the more traditional methods of communication such as newspaper, radio and television. Freedom of speech ascertained by the constitution is not an absolute right. Depending on the medium through which information is delivered various degrees of the freedom to express one's self is protected. Internet communication may be analogous to either a specific existing communication medium or even several. Current free speech protection begins to dissipate as it is applied to the uncertain confines of the newly developed Cyberspace. The traditionalist approach to free speech protection is centered on core values and yields results that are basically neutral so that content allowed through one communication medium is permissible in all media. Freedom of speech and of the press is a basic tenant of United States constitutional law. Perhaps concern for the English use of prior restraint (licensing of press) and seditious libel was the reason for including the first amendment in our bill of rights. When the first amendment became law the printed page was the most widely used non-verbal medium of speech. Speech, as we understand it, involves more than verbal communication. Speecht includes pictures, movies, radio, television and expressive conduct [Shelton v. Tucker, 364 US 479 (1960)]. As technology advanced and additional communication medium developed, speech was given various levels of first amendment protection depending on the medium through which the information was delivered. Cyberspace is a network of computer systems permitting literally millions of people to communicate with one another on an hourly basis. Cyberspace may mirror other types of communication medium singularly or several at one time. Current free speech protection approaches break down when applied to Cyberspace since one may prohibit speech when delivered by one medium but permit identical speech delivered via a different medium. A core values approach protects identical speech regardless of the medium in which it is delivered. So it is a foundation for Cyberspace and promotes development of new technology. That, "Congress shall make no law..., or abridging the freedom of speech", suggests an absolute right to speak. Justice Black dissenting in Konigsberg felt that freedom of speech was absolute [Konigsberg v. State Bar of California, 366 US 36 (1961)]. Justice Harlan writing for the majority rejected an absolute right, noting that protected freedom of speech was less than an unlimited license to talk. When examining

Object-Oriented Database Management Systems

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The construction of Object-Oriented Database Management Systems started in the middle 80's, at a prototype building level, and at the beginning of the 90's the first commercial systems appeared. The interest for the development of such systems stems from the need to cover the modeling deficiencies of their predecessors, that is the relational database management systems. They were intended to be used by applications that have to handle big and complex data such as Computer Aided Engineering, Computer Aided Design, and Office Information Systems. The area of the OODBMSs is characterized by three things. First, it lacks a common data model. There is no common data model although many proposals can be found in the literature. This is a more general problem of all the object-oriented systems not only the database management systems. Since the data model determines the database language of the system, which in turn determines the implementation of the system, we can understand that the differences between the various systems with different data models can be big and substantial. Second is the common theoretical framework. Although there is no standard object-oriented model, most object-oriented database systems that are operational or under development today share a set of fundamental object-oriented concepts. Therefore the implementation issues in OODBMSs that arise due to these concepts are universal. The third characteristic is that of experimental activity. Plenty of prototypes have been implemented and some of them became commercial products. There is really a need for applications to handle very complex data and that is why the interest of people in building such systems is so strong. Although there is no consensus on what an OODBMS is and which are the features that differentiate it from other systems, there has been a lot of effort for an agreement on defining the formal characteristics that can stand as the set of specification requirements for the construction of such a system. These should also be used as the set of features that one has to check in order to find out if a system is really an OODBMS. The features of the OODBMS can be divided as follows:
mandatory features: these are the features that one system should have in order to deserve the title OODBMS.
optional features: these are the features that if one system has, should be considered better than another that does not have them, provided that both have all the mandatory features.

Internet Regulation: Policing Cyberspace

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The Internet is a method of communication and a source of information that is becoming more popular among those who are interested in, and have the time to surf the information superhighway. The problem with this much information being accessible to this many people is that some of it is deemed inappropriate for minors. The government wants censorship, but a segment of the population does not. Legislative regulation of the Internet would be an appropriate function of the government. The Communications Decency Act is an amendment which prevents the information superhighway from becoming a computer "red light district." On June 14, 1995, by a vote of 84-16, the United States Senate passed the amendment. It is now being brought through the House of Representatives.1 The Internet is owned and operated by the government, which gives them the obligation to restrict the materials available through it. Though it appears to have sprung up overnight, the inspiration of free-spirited hackers, it in fact was born in Defense Department Cold War projects of the 1950s.2 The United States Government owns the Internet and has the responsibility to determine who uses it and how it is used. The government must control what information is accessible from its agencies. This material is not lawfully available through the mail or over the telephone, there is no valid reason these perverts should be allowed unimpeded on the Internet. Since our initiative, the industry has commendably advanced some blocking devices, but they are not a substitute for well-reasoned law.4 Because the Internet has become one of the biggest sources of information in this world, legislative safeguards are imperative. The government gives citizens the privilege of using the Internet, but it has never given them the right to use it. They seem to rationalize that the framers of the constitution planned & plotted at great length to make certain that above all else, the profiteering pornographer, the pervert and the pedophile must be free to practice their pursuits in the presence of children on a taxpayer created and subsidized computer network.3 People like this are the ones in the wrong. Taxpayer's dollars are being spent bringing obscene text and graphics into the homes of people all over the world. The government must take control to prevent pornographers from using the Internet however they see fit because they are breaking laws that have existed for years. Cyberpunks, those most popularly associated with the

Internet Censorship

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Thesis: Government Censorship would damage the atmosphere of the freedom to express ideas on the Internet; therefore, government should not encourage censorship. Introduction I. In the Internet community, there is a large volume of technical terms. For this reason, it is first necessary to examine the terminology specific to Internet. 1.The internet is a world wide computer network. 1.Electronic mail (email), which is one component of the Internet, approximates person to person letters, memoranda, notes and even phone calls. 2.Another term that is often used is electronic news (enews/Usenet), enews is a broadcast, free to the Internet medium. 3.The term FTP is also frequently used. File transfer protocol (FTP) started as an Internet archival and retrieval medium, somewhat analogous to traditional libraries. 4.The world-wide web (WWW), which is another component of the Net, can be used to "publish" material that would traditionally appear in journals, magazines, posters, books, television and even on film. 2.It is also essential to give a brief history on the internet. 3.The U.S. government is now trying to pass bills to prevent misuse of the Net. II. In order to understand the need for the ever-growing body of legislation, it is important to explore the controversy, and the current problems involved with the Net as it exists must be introduced. 1.The problem that concerns most people is offensive materials such as pornography. 2.Another crucial internet crime is the stealing of credit card numbers. III. One reaction to this inapplicability has been the "Censor the Net" approach (the censorship bill), we are now to compare its advantages and disadvantages. 1.First, the meaning of "Censoring the Net" must be explained. 2.However, many experts have pointed out that government censorship is not possible. 1.First, it is not fair to exclude the freedom and damage the atmosphere of freely expressing ideas just for the safety of children. 2.Most internet users are enjoying their freedom of speech on the Net, which is supposed to be protected by our First Amendment. 3.Additionally, only a very small portion of the Net contains offensive material, most people do not use the Net for pornography. 4.It must be understood that censoring the Net is technically impossible. 5.While people are concerned about Internet pornography, it should be recognized that pornography is sometimes legal; for example, pornography is legal in video and magazines. IV. There are many alternative measures to government censorship which would prevent misuse of the

Multimedia

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
As a technology, it is called multimedia. As a revolution, it is the sum of many revolutions wrapped into one: A revolution in communication that combines the audio visual power of television, the publishing power of the printing press, and the interactive power of the computer. Multimedia is the convergence of these different professions, once thought independent of one another, coming together to form a new technological approach to the way information and ideas are shared. What will society look like under the evolving institutions of interactive multimedia technologies? Well, if the 1980's were a time for media tycoons, the 1990's will be for the self-styled visionaries. These gurus see a dawning digital age in which the humble television will mutate into a two-way medium for a vast amount of information and entertainment. We can expect to see: movies-on-demand, video games, databases, educational programming, home shopping, telephone services, telebanking, teleconferencing, even the complex simulations of virtual reality. This souped-up television will itself be a powerful computer. This, many believe, will be the world's biggest media group, letting consumers tune into anything, anywhere, anytime. The most extraordinary thing about the multimedia boom, is that so many moguls are spending such vast sums to develop digital technologies, for the delivering of programs and services which are still largely hypothetical. So what is behind such grand prophecies? Primarily, two technological advances known as digitization (including digital compression), and fibre optics. Both are indispensable to the high-speed networks that will deliver dynamic new services to homes and offices. Digitization means translating information, either video, audio, or text, into ones and zeros, which make it easier to send, store, and manipulate. Compression squeezes this information so that more of it can be sent using a given amount of transmission capacity or bandwidth. Fibre-optic cables are producing a vast increase in the amount of bandwidth available. Made of glass so pure that a sheet of it 70 miles thick would be as clear as a window-pane, and the solitary strand of optical fibre the width of a human hair can carry 1,000 times as much information as all radio frequencies put together. This expansion of bandwidth is what is making two-way communication, or interactivity, possible. Neither digitization nor fibre optics is new. But it was only this year that America's two biggest cable-TV owners, TCI and Time Warner , said they would spend $2 billion and $5 billion respectively to deploy

The Manhattan Project

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
On the morning of August 6, 1945, a B-29 bomber named Enola Gay flew over the industrial city of Hiroshima, Japan and dropped the first atomic bomb ever. The city went up in flames caused by the immense power equal to about 20,000 tons of TNT. The project was a success. They were an unprecedented assemblage of civilian, and military scientific brain power-brilliant, intense, and young, the people that helped develop the bomb. Unknowingly they came to an isolated mountain setting, known as Los Alamos, New Mexico, to design and build the bomb that would end World War 2, but begin serious controversies concerning its sheer power and destruction. I became interested in this topic because of my interest in science and history. It seemed an appropriate topic because I am presently studying World War 2 in my Social Studies Class. The Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings were always taught to me with some opinion, and I always wanted to know the bomb itself and the unbiased effects that it had. This I-search was a great opportunity for me to actually fulfill my interest. The Manhattan Project was the code name for the US effort during World War II to produce the atomic bomb. It was appropriately named for the Manhattan Engineer District of the US Army Corps of Engineers, because much of the early research was done in New York City (Badash 238). Sparked by refugee physicists in the United States, the program was slowly organized after nuclear fission was discovered by German scientists in 1938, and many US scientists expressed the fear that Hitler would attempt to build a fission bomb. Frustrated with the idea that Germany might produce an atomic bomb first, Leo Szilard and other scientists asked Albert Einstein, a famous scientist during that time, to use his influence and write a letter to president FDR, pleading for support to further research the power of nuclear fission (Badash 237). His letters were a success, and President Roosevelt established the Manhattan Project. Physicists from 1939 onward conducted much research to find answers to such questions as how many neutrons were emitted in each fission, which elements would not capture the neutrons but would moderate or reduce their velocity , and whether only the lighter and scarcer isotope of uranium (U-235) fissioned or the common isotope (U-238) could be used. They learned that each fission releases a few neutrons.

The Internet Market in Kuwait

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Many competitive markets have been appeared in Middle East lately, and specially in Kuwait. The One which I will discuss is the Internet competitive market in Kuwait . Internet has been a great demand in all over the world. In 1992, The ministry of communication in Kuwait provided the internet service. Since there was no community

Internet Censorship Threatens Freedom of Speech

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Thesis: The vast cyber-frontier is being threatend with censorship from the government. Internet censorship should be left up to the individual not the governments discretion. I. Censoring the Internet. A. Clinton passes the C.D.A. B. Our rights as Americans. C. Exon's victory. D. What's really online. E. Strike to free expresson on Compuserve. II. Where the Internet stands now. A. Judges Panel. B. Congress and other's opinions. C. Background information. D. Other opinions. III. Solutions. A. Family's responsibility. B. Censorship Software. C. Civil Rights. Conclusion After threatening the Communications Decency Act with a vetos of the past versions, President Bill Clinton signed the bill into law on February 8, 1996.1 Before hand, congress approved the largest change of the nation's communications laws in 62 years. One of the largest controversial topics included in the bill is the censorship of pornography, which now is a strenuously enforced crime of distributing knowingly to children under 18. The congress overwhelmingly passed the bill with a landslide 414-16 House vote and a 91-5 Senate vote.2 It seems now that the wide bill might not be what it cracked up to be, as it stands now, anyone who might upload James Joyce's Ulysses could be placed in jail for two years and have up to a $250,000 fine.3 Representatives of on-line services industries were concerned about the bill, and feared they could be held criminally responsible for Internet conversations.4 "We face a unique disturbing and urgent circumstance, because it is children who are the computer experts in our nations families," remarked a concerned Rep. Senator of India Dan Coats.5 Although in reality, censorship would do little to stop the pornography problems. The bill is a nation legislation trying to control a international network, which is virtually impossible. According to the First Amendment, Americans were granted to write anything they please, whether it's indecent or not, several series of judicial decisions also helped the freedom down the road.6 Nebraskan Democrat James Exon, put together an informational binder known as the Blue Book to show the Senate about the goings on within the Internet.7 Along the pages of the Blue Book were pictures of people bound and being burned by cigarettes, people pierced with swords and people involved in sexual activities with animals.8 The Senate, acknowledging their ignorance of the Internet, passed Exon's proposal after seeing the pictures in the Blue Book.9 Along with distribution of pornography, a person carries the chance of two

Sony Playstation vs Nintendo 64

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
In the last two years of 1995 and 1996, the video game world was taken into another gaming dimension. The releases of the Sony Playstation in September of 1995 and the Nintendo 64 in September of 1996 has given the gaming public an enormous boost of technological advances in the home entertainment system for the common man. Sony and Nintendo soon became heated rivals as each company tries to out sell each other in the gaming marketplace. Eventhough the Sony Playstation and Nintendo 64 are two different systems. They both have some similar qualities and some very notable differences. First of all the most notable difference between the Sony Playstation and Nintendo 64 is the processing power. Most noteworthy is the fact that the Nintendo 64 is a 64-bit machine, while the Sony Playstation is only a 32-bit system. This means the Nintendo 64 can produce better graphics in a game, while the Sony Playstation's graphics aren't as good. The colors in the Nintendo 64's games are more vibrant, while the Playstation's colors seem to be more dull. Another difference is in the price of each of the systems. The Nintendo 64 is a bit more pricey at $199.99 than the Sony Playstation at $149.99. The games for each of the system also plays at vital role in the gaming marketplace. Both of these systems has some advantages when it comes to games. The Sony Playstation is the favorite in this category, with over 170 games with many 3rd party developers in its extensive library of games. Obviously the Nintendo 64 has less games in its library, due to the fact that the Nintendo was released a year later. The Playstation specializes in the sports genre with many different sporting titles. Sports games such as Madden football '98, NHL'98, NBA Live '98, and PGA Tour Golf '98. The Nintendo 64 specializes in the action/adventure genre with various different titles. With action/adventure games such as Turok: the dinosaur hunter, Super Mario 64, Goldeneye, and Super Mario Cart 64. The prices of the games for the Nintendo system are very expensive compared to the Sony. A Nintendo game can range in price from $59.99 to $69.99 and a Sony game can cost between $39.99 and $49.99. Another difference between the Nintendo 64 and the Sony Playstation is the media in which the games are stored. The Nintendo uses cartridges to store its

Economic Impact of Canadian Telecommunications Legislation

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Canada has been transformed in recent years into an information based society. Nearly half of the labour force in Canada works in occupations involving the collection and processing of information. In a society in which information has become a commodity, communications provide a vital link that can mean the difference between success or failure. Telecommunications is a fundamental infrastructure of the Canadian economy and society. For these reasons, an efficient and dynamic telecommunications industry is necessary to ensure economic prosperity. Deregulating the Long Distance Industry is the only sure way to ensure that prosperity. Telecommunications in Canada, which include services and manufacturing, employ more than 125,000 people and generate over $21 billion in revenues (Dept. of Communications, 1992, p7). Telecommunications helps to overcome the obstacles of distance in a vast country such as Canada, permitting remote communities to benefit from services taken for granted in large urban centres. More than 98 percent of Canadian households have a telephone, and there are more than 15 million telephone lines for a population of nearly 27 million(Dept. of Communications, 1992, p7). It is therefore not surprising that Canadians are among the biggest users of telecommunications in the world. For example, in 1990, Canadians made more than three billion long-distance calls (Dept. of Communications, 1992, p8). Innovations made possible through telecommunications have also contributed significantly to the phenomenal growth of the Canadian telecommunications industry. For example, the total value of the major telephone companies' investment in their facilities rose from $17.8 billion in 1979 to $40.3 billion in 1990. In the same year, Canadian telecommunications companies reported more than $15 billion in revenues, accounting for an estimated 2.7 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In addition, in 1990 the telecom industry achieved a real growth rate (after inflation) of 8.6 percent compared to 0.3 percent for the Canadian economy as a whole. Telecommunications is also Canada's leading high-technology industry; its Research and Development costs of $1.4 billion in 1990 represent about 24 percent of total expenditures in this area. This shows how telecommunications has come to play such a vital role in our society, in addition to being our most important high technology indus! try (Dept. of Communications, 1992, p9-12). Changes are constantly taking place in the telecom industry. These changes are caused by rapid progress in telecommunications technology, growing demand for new services, the globalization of trade and manufacturing operations, and increasing competition worldwide. It

Technology. The Way of the Future?

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The 90's has been a decade full of controversial and world changing events. The first one I could think of would have to be the Persian Gulf War with Iraq. I think that war brought together the United States, stopped our fighting with each other, and helped us focus on one common enemy, Saddam Hussein. The next thing we did was send troops to Haiti and to Somalia to help protect the people and the failing governments. Once again the United States was brought together in a time of war. However, I believe that the one true Zeitgeist of the 90's isn't the wars that brought us together but the information and technology age that will break us apart. The way that new products are being developed each day in the next 10 to 20 years almost everything will be automated and many being will be out of a job doing nothing. The Internet is now one of the biggest things in the world today with the help of companies like American on Line, CompuServe, Prodigy, Phillips Web Tv and all the other companies that are trying to get rich off of it. They say people can stay in the safety of their home while they can shop, talk to people online and even send things like birthday cards thanks to companies that advertise on the web like Hallmark and Disney's family page. The Internet also offers a way to get information from a wide variety of sources like Compton's Encyclopedia and other useful tools. The Internet offers all of this stuff for us to browse through without leaving our home that pretty soon no one will leave their home especially with newer technology coming out everyday. Computers are the wave of the future and with modems and the Internet and now teleconferencing many more people will be staying at home while they work. New inventions like processing chips that can run billions of commands in a matter of seconds that soon will be able to take control of robots and other machinery that will make human work obsolete. Detroit, Michigan home of the General Motors automotive company was once a huge flourishing community that had a huge population base. Now it is all made up of a few factories that have a very small population base that is mainly operated by machinery and giant robots. Just recently both of my parents started to

How Technology Effects Modern America - US Wage Trends

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The microeconomic picture of the U.S. has changed immensely since 1973, and the trends are proving to be consistently downward for the nation's high school graduates and high school drop-outs. "Of all the reasons given for the wage squeeze - international competition, technology, deregulation, the decline of unions and defense cuts - technology is probably the most critical. It has favored the educated and the skilled," says M. B. Zuckerman, editor-in-chief of U.S. News & World Report (7/31/95). Since 1973, wages adjusted for inflation have declined by about a quarter for high school dropouts, by a sixth for high school graduates, and by about 7% for those with some college education. Only the wages of college graduates are up. Of the fastest growing technical jobs, software engineering tops the list. Carnegie Mellon University reports, "recruitment of it's software engineering students is up this year by over 20%." All engineering jobs are paying well, proving that highly skilled labor is what employers want! "There is clear evidence that the supply of workers in the [unskilled labor] categories already exceeds the demand for their services," says L. Mishel, Research Director of Welfare Reform Network. In view of these facts, I wonder if these trends are good or bad for society. "The danger of the information age is that while in the short run it may be cheaper to replace workers with technology, in the long run it is potentially self-destructive because there will not be enough purchasing power to grow the economy," M. B. Zuckerman. My feeling is that the trend from unskilled labor to highly technical, skilled labor is a good one! But, political action must be taken to ensure that this societal evolution is beneficial to all of us. "Back in 1970, a high school diploma could still be a ticket to the middle income bracket, a nice car in the driveway and a house in the suburbs. Today all it gets is a clunker parked on the street, and a dingy apartment in a low rent building," says Time Magazine (Jan 30, 1995 issue). However, in 1970, our government provided our children with a free education, allowing the vast majority of our population to earn a high school diploma. This means that anyone, regardless of family income, could be educated to a level that would allow them a comfortable place in the middle class. Even restrictions upon child labor hours kept

Living In Space: Energy

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Space is filled with radiant energy and beyond earth's atmosphere this energy flow more steadily and more intensely from the sun than that which penetrates to the surface of the Earth. So an abundant and essential source of energy that would be used in space for the space colony would be solar radiation by developing satellite solar power stations. To live in space, humans must be protected from the fierce intensity and penetrating wavelengths of unattenuated sunlight, but this same energy is one of the primary resources of space. The colony will have to have enough energy to maintain a fairly uniform temperature even though it is apace. The sun shines twenty-four hours a day and is not dimmed by an atmosphere. Shaded materials not exposed to direct sunlight will almost be at absolute zero. While the temperature in closed bodies exposed to the sun can soar above the boiling point. The colony will need to have both heaters and air conditioners. On the other hand, this sun's energy can be converted into electricity in the colonies. It will be converted with ten percent efficiency to electrical power which is sold at a rate of .012 kw/hr, a square kilometre of space would return more than $14,000,000 each year. Converting solar power to electricity in space, we would build satellite solar power stations that would intercept the sunlight and convert it into electricity. The satellite solar power stations would intercept enough sunlight to replace five nuclear reactors or coal plants. The stations could be as big as nine miles long and four miles wide and it would only weigh twenty thousand tons. It would be built with hollow triangular girders made of aluminum that is very fast and easy to build . Solar power satellites are a pollution free way to generate electricity and cost no more than coal or nuclear energy. There has been twomajor designed stations made so far. One is designed by Peter Glaser of Author D. Little Inc., which would use very large arrays of photo voltaic cells to make the conversion directly into energy. The other major design is by Gordon Woodcock of Boeing Aircraft Corporation, proposed having conventional turbogenerators operating on a Brayton cycle with helium as the working fluid. The key product in the solar power stations is solar cells, which does the actual converting of energy into electricity. A useful material is found in lunar soil

Solar Energy

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Solar cells today are mostly made of silicon, one of the most common elements on Earth. The crystalline silicon solar cell was one of the first types to be developed and it is still the most common type in use today. They do not pollute the atmosphere and they leave behind no harmful waste products. Photovoltaic cells work effectively even in cloudy weather and unlike solar heaters, are more efficient at low temperatures. They do their job silently and there are no moving parts to wear out. It is no wonder that one marvels on how such a device would function. To understand how a solar cell works, it is necessary to go back to some basic atomic concepts. In the simplest model of the atom, electrons orbit a central nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons. each electron carries one negative charge and each proton one positive charge. Neutrons carry no charge. Every atom has the same number of electrons as there are protons, so, on the whole, it is electrically neutral. The electrons have discrete kinetic energy levels, which increase with the orbital radius. When atoms bond together to form a solid, the electron energy levels merge into bands. In electrical conductors, these bands are continuous but in insulators and semiconductors there is an "energy gap", in which no electron orbits can exist, between the inner valence band and outer conduction band [Book 1]. Valence electrons help to bind together the atoms in a solid by orbiting 2 adjacent nucleii, while conduction electrons, being less closely bound to the nucleii, are free to move in response to an applied voltage or electric field. The fewer conduction electrons there are, the higher the electrical resistivity of the material. In semiconductors, the materials from which solar sells are made, the energy gap Eg is fairly small. Because of this, electrons in the valence band can easily be made to jump to the conduction band by the injection of energy, either in the form of heat or light [Book 4]. This explains why the high resistivity of semiconductors decreases as the temperature is raised or the material illuminated. The excitation of valence electrons to the conduction band is best accomplished when the semiconductor is in the crystalline state, i.e. when the atoms are arranged in a precise geometrical formation or "lattice". At room temperature and low illumination, pure or so-called "intrinsic" semiconductors

Economic Consequences of Software Crime

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
In 1996 worldwide illegal copying of domestic and international software cost $15.2 billion to the software industry, with a loss of $5.1 billion in the North America alone. Some sources put the total up-to-date losses, due to software crime, as high as $4.7 trillion. On the next page is a regional breakdown of software piracy losses for 1994. Estimates show that over 40 percent of North American software company revenues are generated overseas, yet nearly 85 percent of the software industry's piracy losses occurred outside of North America. The Software Publishers Association (SPA) indicated that approximately 35 percent of the business software in the North America was obtained illegally. In fact, 30 percent of the piracy occurs in corporate settings. In a corporate setting or business, every computer must have its own set of original software and the appropriate number of manuals. It is illegal for a corporation or business to purchase a single set of original s! oftware and then load that software onto more than one computer, or lend, copy or distribute software for any reason without the prior written consent of the software manufacturer. Many software managers are concerned with the legal compliance, along with asset management and costs to their organizations. Many firms involve their legal departments and human resources in regards to software distribution and licensing. Information can qualify to be property in two ways; patent law and copyright laws which are creations of federal statutes, which are subject to Constitutional authority. In order for the government to prosecute the unauthorized copying of computerized information as theft, it must first rely on other theories of information-as-property. Trade secret laws are created by provincial law, and most jurisdictions have laws that criminalize the violations of a trade-secret holder's rights. The definition of a trade secret varies somewhat from province to province, but commonly have the same elements. For example, the information must be secret, not of public knowledge or of general knowledge in the trade or business. A court will allow a trade secret to be used by someone who discovered or developed the trade secret independently if the holder takes adequate precautions to protect the secret. In 1964, the National Copyright Office began to register software as a form of literary expression. The office based its decision on White-Smith Music Co. v. Apollo, where the Supreme Court determined that a piano roll used in a player piano did

Software and copyright

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Current copright and patent laws are inapropriate for computer software; their imposition slows down software development and reduces competition. From the first computer as we know them, the ENIAC, computer software has become more and more important. From thousands of bytes on miles of paper to millions of bytes on a thin piece of tin foilsandwitched between two pieces of plastic, software has played an important part in the world. Computers have most likely played an important role in all our lives, from making math easier with calculators, to having money on the go with ATM machines. However, with all the help that has been given to us, we haven't done anything for software and the people who write it. Software by nature is completely defenseless, as it is more or less simply intellectual property, and not a physical thing, thus very easily copied. Copied software does not make money for its creators, and thus they charge more for whats not copied, and the whole industry inflates. There are two categories of intellectual property. The first one is composed of writing, music, and films,which are covered by copyright. Inventions and innovations are covered by patent. These two categories have covered for years many kinds of work with little or no conflict. Unfortunately, it is not that easy when dealing with such a complex matter as computer software. When something is typed on a computer, it is considered writting, as it is all written words and numbers. However, when executed by the computer, it functions like an invention, performing a specific task as instructed by the user. Thus, software falls into both categories (Del Guercio 22-24). It is generally covered today by copyright laws, for most mass market software at least. More advanced software or programming techniques, however, can be patented, as they are neither obvious nor old. This results in many problems which I will go into later. Copyrights last the lifetime of the author, plus 50 years, and can be renewed. Patents last only 17 years, but cannot be renewed. With technology advancing so quickly, it is not necessary to maintain the protection of the software for the length of the copyright, but also, it is sometimes necessary to renew them (Del Guercio 22-24), say, for a 10th sequel in a video game series or version 47.1 of Bob's Graphic Program. With copyrighted material, one is able to write software similiar

Virtual Reality - What it is and How it Works

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Imagine being able to point into the sky and fly. Or perhaps walk through space and connect molecules together. These are some of the dreams that have come with the invention of virtual reality. With the introduction of computers, numerous applications have been enhanced or created. The newest technology that is being tapped is that of artificial reality, or "virtual reality" (VR). When Morton Heilig first got a patent for his "Sensorama Simulator" in 1962, he had no idea that 30 years later people would still be trying to simulate reality and that they would be doing it so effectively. Jaron Lanier first coined the phrase "virtual reality" around 1989, and it has stuck ever since. Unfortunately, this catchy name has caused people to dream up incredible uses for this technology including using it as a sort of drug. This became evident when, among other people, Timothy Leary became interested in VR. This has also worried some of the researchers who are trying to create very real applications for medical, space, physical, chemical, and entertainment uses among other things. In order to create this alternate reality, however, you need to find ways to create the illusion of reality with a piece of machinery known as the computer. This is done with several computer-user interfaces used to simulate the senses. Among these, are stereoscopic glasses to make the simulated world look real, a 3D auditory display to give depth to sound, sensor lined gloves to simulate tactile feedback, and head-trackers to follow the orientation of the head. Since the technology is fairly young, these interfaces have not been perfected, making for a somewhat cartoonish simulated reality. Stereoscopic vision is probably the most important feature of VR because in real life, people rely mainly on vision to get places and do things. The eyes are approximately 6.5 centimeters apart, and allow you to have a full-colour, three-dimensional view of the world. Stereoscopy, in itself, is not a very new idea, but the new twist is trying to generate completely new images in real- time. In 1933, Sir Charles Wheatstone invented the first stereoscope with the same basic principle being used in today's head-mounted displays. Presenting different views to each eye gives the illusion of three dimensions. The glasses that are used today work by using what is called an "electronic shutter". The lenses of the glasses interleave the left-eye and right-eye views

History of Space Exploration

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Exploration; to travel in a little-known region for discovery, as defined by Webster. Since the age of the Greeks, Anglo-Saxons have been interested in space exploration. From Copernicus to Gaileo to Newton, space has been looked upon with adoring eyes. Space has been regarded time after time as the final frontier. That was until 1957, with the launch of the Sputnik-1, when the Soviet built satellite became the first man-made satellite successfully launched out into outer space. In 1958, the United States matched the Soviets with their own satellite, Explorer III. After that, it became a free-for-all out into the darkest regions of the final frontier. The ascension into space for the United States started off with rockets, satellites, and probes then later moved on to shuttles and larger spacecrafts. In 1946, the United States started their climb towards the heavens with the NRL V-2. The rocket gave the first observations of the Sun's UV spectrum. In 1949, the NRL V-2 gave the first observations of solar X-rays. In 1958, the Explorer III became the US's first satellite and it also discovered Earth's radiation belt. On August 17th, 1958, the US set its sights upon the moon with the Pioneer 0 but it exploded in its first stages of ascension. It was followed later in the year by Pioneer 1 and Pioneer 3 both lunar orbiters, but again failure because both separately failed to reach atmospheric escape velocity. The following years Pioneer 4 and 5 were launched as space probes and are presently still in solar orbit. In 1962, the Aerobee Rocket was launched and observed the first x-ray star. In the 1960's, NASA began the Ranger space probe program. They were NASA's earliest Moon exploration program probes. These spacecrafts were designed to perform a crash landing upon the Moon's surface. They were intended to take pictures and return scientific data up until the impact of the probe with the lunar surface. On April 23rd, 1962, the Ranger 4 became the first US lunar impact on the Moon's surface. The Soviets had done it first with Luna 2 on September 14th, 1959. The Ranger's provided scientists with more than 17,000 close up pictures of the lunar surface and specifically the areas of Mare Tranquillitatis and Ocean Procellarum. (Johnson) These pictures gave us more information about the Moon and its surface in just a few years than all the previous attempts put

Jaguar	Tiger Shark	Earth Worm	Red Wood	Killer Whale.
Animalia	Animalia	Animalia	Plantae	Animalia.
Chordata	Chordata	Annelida	Embryophyta	Chordata
Mammalia	Chondrichthyes	Oligochaeta	Coniferopsida	Mammalia.
Carnivora	Carcharhiniformes	Haplotaxida	Coniferales	Cetacea
Felidae	Carcharhinidae	Megasclolecidae	cupressaceae	Delphinidae.
Panthera	Galecoerdo	Pheretima	Sequoia	Orcinus.
Galecoerdo covier	Pheretima Sieboldi	Sequoia sempervirenes	Orcinus orca