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Thanksgiving Day, A Remembrance of Genocide?

2021-11-24T20:04:01.61-05:00

Thanksgiving is a federal holiday which is observed across the US for its historical significance in a mutually beneficial relationship with the pilgrims and natives. Or we are told to believe. The common theory of the day is taught in school districts in mostly every state, and usually it portrays an image of acceptance and prosperous relationship between the two. The truth however is far removed from this fabled story. The story taught to kids begins with the Plymouth Colony, an English colony created by John Smith in 1620. The colony was made up of ~500-1000 puritans, a protestant group that believed in the reformation of the church but were persecuted for their different beliefs. On the other side of the story were the Wampanoag Nation, a group of Native American peoples that lived in the New England area for long before the settlers arrived. Massasoit, the leader of the nation, endorsed friendly relations with the colonists. The Natives helped the colonists find their way around an unfamiliar area and food gathering strategies (in both hunting and harvesting). This agreement was well found, as both groups were able to secure their own safety from one another. In honor of this alliance, a feast was to be called in celebration. In autumn, they shared a feast where both sides exchanged food in creating a stronger relationship in the future. While historians are unsure of what foods were present at the time, the modern culture of Thanksgiving has rooted with turkey, mashed potatoes, and gravy (along with many others). 2021 marks the 400-year anniversary of this event, a tradition that millions of Americans still celebrate to this day. But Thanksgiving hides with it many loops and developments from there can very much change the perspective entirely. The first major issue was that the Native Americans were never actually invited. The feast, many times falsely assumed to be a binding one between groups, was not meant for the Native Americans. Instead, it was an annual feast celebrated by the colonists which the Wampanoag walked into and joined. Second, there were many feasts in relation to the colonists, and not all were friendly. According to insider.com, “Others pinpoint 1637 as the true origin of Thanksgiving, since the Massachusetts Bay Colony's governor, John Winthrop, declared a day to celebrate colonial soldiers who had just slaughtered hundreds of Pequot men, women, and children”. The “peaceful” relationship

Veterans Day

2021-11-10T13:30:17.26-05:00

Veterans Day. What is Veterans Day? Veterans Day gives Americans the opportunity to celebrate the bravery and sacrifice of all U.S. veterans. However, most Americans confuse this holiday with Memorial Day, reports the Department of Veterans Affairs. What's more, some Americans don't know why we commemorate our Veterans on Nov.11. It's imperative that all Americans know the history of Veterans Day so that we can honor our former service members properly. (Source: https://www.military.com/veterans-day/history-of-veterans-day.html) The day is known and remembered throughout the United States as schools, most government offices, and many places of work close for the event, and military parades are held in major cities across the states and territories. Unlike Memorial Day, Veterans Day includes all individuals who served through peace and war. It didn't always hold the same definition and name, but the core ideas of commemorating those who served in the Armed Forces has remained the same. The History: The day itself, the 11th of November, holds historical precedence dating back to the First World War. On this day in 1918, an armistice (or ceasefire) was signed between the Allied Nations in France, and the Central Powers in Germany. It unofficially marked the end of the Great War, and as such was dedicated Armistice Day by the 66th Congress following the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. At the time however, it was meant to serve as a holiday commemorating the end of the war. Many nations, such as those in the British Commonwealth, celebrate a remembrance on a day close to November 11th as well. Armistice Day was later codified into law in 1938. By 1954 however, the idea of the Great War being "the war to end all wars" had long faded in the minds of the American public. Just three decades after World War 1, hostilities with the Axis had engulfed the globe in another World War, and in 1950 the United States' War on Communism had led them to fight in the brutal Korean campaigns. President Eisenhower and the 84th Congressional Session amended the 1938 act to change from Armistice Day to Veterans Day. Veterans Day holds many traditions in its celebrations. Oftentimes at 11am, organizations will hold a moment of silence for veterans. US flags are flown at half-mast (halfway up the pole it is on) in remembrance of US servicemen. Many smaller traditions may occur varying from state, community, or organization contributing. Regardless of how it is

Veterans Day 2021

2021-11-09T13:34:16.213-05:00

Bureau of Engraving and Printing

2006-11-07T06:34:48-05:00

Put in short, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing is where all United States paper currency and several other paper goods for the government are manufactured. Incredibly important to our capitalist society, this bureau is kept one of the most secure and, if not completely, quite secretive about its habits. We shall, over the next several hours for me, several minutes for you, go over this process, and how it came to be. The United States Bureau of Engraving and Printing was created on August 29, 1862. In a single basement room in the building of theTreasury, the bureau was created in order to issue paper money, which, during the Civil War, would be more resistant to counterfeiting than the gold and silver coins used. In 1894, they took over production of U.S. postage stamps, which they continue to manufacture now. The BEP has also, in its time, produced currency for China, Siam, Korea, and the Philippines, all work for which it has been paid. In the past, the Bureau has printed denominations up to $10,000, today still considered legal tender (Treasury, 1).? The process of making paper money begins with manufacturing the paper. Denim (the kind used in blue jeans) and other types of cotton are mashed to a pulpy consistency, then bleached and treated with chemical baths then heated to turn it into usable pulpy slurry. The cotton pulp is then rolled and squeezed to expel all moisture until it is thin and dry enough to be used as paper. Immediately after the process of rolling, the watermark is pressed into the paper in a process known only to a few people. Also in this process, the anti-counterfeit plastic strip, dyed various fluorescent shades, is added. The fluorescent dye makes the strip reactive to black, or ultraviolet, lights; an easy way to tell a counterfeit bill from a fake one. There are red and blue strands scattered randomly throughout the paper, creating red, white, and blue bills. This also helps to determine counterfeit bills; those without the small strands are counterfeit (Discovery). Printing the bills cannot even begin until their plates are engraved. Engravers at the BEP work tirelessly to engrave sheets of steel with the exact design of the bills, without serial numbers, color-shifting ink, or microprinting. They also have to engrave the plates backward so that the bills are printed correctly. For security purposes, no one engraver works

Cold War or New War: American Foreign Policy since 9-11

2006-09-04T13:12:59-04:00

The Cold War can be most aptly characterized as an ideological conflict between two superpowers which enveloped and polarized the world for fifty years. It was a conflict between communism and capitalism, the Soviet Union versus the United States. Both nations’ foreign policies were shaped in order to retain and increase the influence of their respective ideologies whilst restricting the spread of the other. Since 9-11, U.S. foreign policy has had similar purposes and employed similar means to quelling so called ‘evil doers’ and consequently certain parallels can be drawn to the Cold War. However since 9-11, the U.S. has had to change it foreign policies due to characteristics of both the modern world and the enemy. The U.S. policy of containment during the Cold War stated that “the United States would support any free people threatened by communist aggression or subversion.” By simply replacing communism with evil in the previous statement, obvious similarities can be drawn between the U.S. foreign policy in the Cold War and after 9-11. Thus the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan can be compared with that of Vietnam as the U.S. committed military forces to stop ‘evil’ or ‘communism’ in order for democracy and freedom to prevail. Whether or not the occupants of the countries the United States chose to free wanted their help is irrelevant as the policy has been consistent. It does also illustrate that the United Sates have had policies in place whereby there will act on perceived threats and interests, regardless of legitimacy. However that is where the main similarities end as U.S. foreign policy since 9-11 has had to evolve to combat a seemingly invisible enemy. U.S. foreign policy since 9-11 differs most significantly from the strategy employed in the Cold War due to globalization and the nature of the enemy. To accomplish 9-11 the terrorists turned to the tools of globalization. This means that the sovereign invincibility once maintained by missile shields was no longer a viable defense. Terrorism has also been able to transcend national boarders because only a small proportion of Muslims subscribe to terrorist acts, and with the increased presence of Muslims all over the world, the U.S. have had to concede that Islam is inescapable presence. Thus their policies have had to reflect this. As Benjamin Barber suggests, American independence is a casualty of September 11, and it is apparent that

Martin Luther King's way

2005-11-20T16:17:18-05:00

“Nonviolence is a powerful and just weapon. It is a weapon unique in history, which cuts without wounding, and ennobles the man who wields it. It is a sword that heals”. - Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Luther King used non violence as a weapon to bring justice and equality to the segregated Black society of America. He was one of the few people who stood up against society and tried to change what he believed was wrong. Martin Luther King is best known for the dream that he had. A dream that one day justice and equality would prevail in the presently segregated American society. He was the leading man in the civil rights movement and changed the racially segregated society of America through non-violent means. Martin Luther King was responsible to maintain the peace in America through non –violence and any other method would have made things worse. King got involved in the civil rights movement, and in 1955 he was the leader of the Montgomery bus boycott. King was arrested during protests but his arrest led to the court in outlawing racial segregation. King was also part of organizations like the SCLC and SNCC. Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) was the organization which led non – violent protests against racism. King also organized and led marches to acquire the right to vote and other basic civil rights for the blacks. After looking at Gandhi’s non – violent progress in India, King was inspired and looked forward to non – violence as the only method to end racism. Now the question arises that why King used non violence when there were many other methods which would have worked effectively. Non – violence would have been the last resort in a country where the blacks were abused, humiliated, and treated like animals. During the time, Blacks also started to protest against the system, the government and many of them used violent ways. Blacks would attack whites and the whites would retaliate. The condition of racial segregation had already reached its peak during that time. Martin Luther King relied on non –violence because he wanted a peaceful way out of the problem in the country. King already had plans for the future in his mind, he was thinking about the best way to bring justice and equality among all Americans. While violence would seem effective in that period of time, non –violence would

Just how broad should suffrage be in a Republic?

2005-08-05T23:37:40-04:00

Just how broad should suffrage be in a Republic? That question’s resonated throughout the history of the United States. America is not a Democracy and never has been. Nowhere in the original Constitution is there a reference to voting. The Constitution left it to the states to determine voting procedures and qualifications. Only making broad statements about them maintaining Republican governments. For more than 10 years before the Constitution was written, the states had been writing they’re own suffrage laws. Colonial precedents and English traditions almost universally shaped these laws, and the cornerstone of both Colonial and British suffrage regulations was the restriction of voting to male property owners. There were essentially two rationales for the propertied vote: those who possessed property had a personal stake in society, especially taxation, and that property owners were relatively independent from the support of others. Thus voting was considered to be a social privilege and not a natural right. Those without property were not considered entirely independent and were thought to be easily controllable by interested parties. Likewise, women were excluded from the vote, as were freedmen. In most states Catholics and Jews were also prohibited from voting (Keyssar 5-6). Colonial property qualifications began to erode after 1790. Though many states retained archaic economic qualification, the enforceable link between property, money, and suffrage had been worn down. Between 1830 and 1955, six states gave up requiring voters to be taxpayers, leaving only six states with tax paying clauses, all of which were nominal. In 1802, Congress declared that any foreign born white male who met a five year residency requirement could become a US citizen three years after formally announcing his intention to become one. Following this precedent, the states shortened their residency requirements, and often permitted aliens to vote in state elections. In the War of 1812, the Federal government had trouble raising a large enough army and had to call on the state militias, reinvigorating the Revolutionary argument that all soldiers must be enfranchised. In the South, large state militias were required in order to put down possible slave revolts, also encouraging the call for universal white male suffrage. By the time the Civil War began, nearly all white males had the vote (Keyssar 29-38). At the onset of the Civil War,

Cuban Missile Crisis: At the Brink of Abyss

2005-05-11T12:53:57-04:00

The Cuban Missile Crisis was a major confrontation between the United States of America (U.S.A) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R). This major confrontation was in 1962 over the issue of Soviet supplied missile installations in Cuba. Regarded as the world’s closest approach to a nuclear war, the Cuban Missile Crisis was a brief encounter during the Cold War in which the United States, Cuba, and the Soviet Union were engaged in a potentially dangerous confrontation that could have led to a deadly nuclear war, however, the bravery of the leaders led to negotiations that avoided such a conflict and they took steps to avoid a possible war between the two superpowers. Even though the Cuban Missile Crisis was a brief thirteen-day period, the situation was very edgy and the leaders had to make smart and calm decisions to avoid the conflict. The crisis was a result of the growing tension between the United States and Cuba following the Cuban Revolution of 1959. This revolution brought to power Fidel Castro who then brought in Communism. The United States was stunned by the new communist nation merely ninety miles from its borders. The Americans did not want any communist government near its borders, so they applied economic pressure on Cuba to make Cuba weak and try to topple the communist government. Knowing that the United States had significant influence in Cuba’s economic and political affairs, Castro’s government refused to be influenced by the United States. Later in 1960, the United States implemented an embargo that cut off trade. After this Castro still refused to give in to the pressure and responded by establishing closer relations with the communist government of the Soviet Union. During this time the United States was also involved in a Cold War with the Soviet Union. This was an economic, military, and diplomatic struggle between communist and capitalistic nations. The United States, however, still did not give up trying to topple Castro’s government. The United States also trained an army of anti-Castro exiles living in the United States to go and attack Cuba. This was known as the Bay of Pigs invasion. Although Castro’s army won easily, the Cubans were certain that the United States would not give up and will try to invade Cuba again. Cuba knew that if it tried to protect itself from the Americans it would loose, so they needed help

explain what Columbus expected to find in the Indies, how his reports reflected these findings

2005-05-08T03:24:12-04:00

Although the journals and diaries, in which Christopher Columbus is said to have recorded his discoveries, have long been lost to us and the ones that remain are not the originals, these works may not tell the whole story, or even possibly the truth of his discoveries. This essay will endeavor to explain what Columbus expected to find in the Indies, how his reports reflected these findings and the deception in what he reported back to the empire in a bid to hide his misfortunes. Upon the ‘reading of Marco Polo’s journals concerning his travels to China in 1170-1190 and being told of Cipangu (Japan) and other populated islands, Columbus decided to search for a faster sea route to the Far East’. Even though Columbus set out to find faster trade routes for King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, he had an alteria motive and that was to improve his and his family’ s position within the Spanish kingdom. Columbus not only set out to discover a faster trade route through Asia, but also expected to find many commodities that would benefit himself and his sovereigns. Columbus sought trading commodities such as gold, silk and spices, which he believed would be found in large amounts throughout Asia. He also sought land to colonize and declare ownership by Spain. Columbus’ third aim was to Christianise the natives of Asia, if any were to be found. Behind all of these objectives lay Columbus’ true aim which was to become ‘Admiral of the Sea’, to gain more support for future voyages, and also to enable his descendants a better position within Spanish society. Columbus’ ultimate goal was to locate the ‘great Asian trading centres that Marco Polo had discovered and written about’. To find Asia, ‘Christopher Columbus instructed his crew to explore directly to the west without deviating to the south as ordered by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, and then he gave the crews his own ideals, which were that they would not see land for at least another 750 leagues’ . Although Columbus had sailed before and had navigational knowledge, his image of the world was a lot smaller than it actually was. This resulted in him underestimating the true distance of Japan from Gomera, and in doing so, he discovered the Indies. This would explain while even though ‘Columbus searched for Marco Polo’s golden roofed palaces on

9-11 could have been avoided if the Secret Services would have done their Work

2005-04-30T22:48:49-04:00

Preceding the terrible events on September 11th, 2001, the American Secret Services have made many mistakes in regard to the possibility of preventing 9-11. The Secret Services, mainly the CIA and the FBI, have made a great lot of mistakes. After an initial meeting in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, where eight terrorists met, the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) let go of them after their meeting, assuming it was unimportant . After the attack on the USS Cole in 2000 they changed their minds, now coming to the conclusion that major agreements regarding the Cole as well as regarding the WTC (World Trade Center) were made in Malaysia. However, it was too late. As the year 2001 approached and warnings accumulated, they still did not react. The September 11th-attacks could have been avoided if the Secret Services would not have been hindered in their work by higher authorities and if they would have cooperated/shared their findings. Mistakes long before 9-11 After the 1996 crash of TWA flight 800, 31 urgent proposals by a White House commission were proposed. The Los Angeles Times: The White House Commission on Aviation Safety and Security, created in 1996 after TWA Flight 800 crashed off Long Island, N.Y., recommended 31 steps that it said were urgently needed to provide a multilayered security system at the nation's airports... The Federal Aviation Administration expressed support for the proposals, which ranged from security inspections at airports to tighter screening of mail parcels, and the Clinton administration vowed to rigorously monitor the changes. But by Sept. 11, most of the proposals had been watered down by industry lobbying or were bogged down in bureaucracy, a Times review found. This was not at all done; according to Larry Klayman, CEO of Judicial Watch (a Washington-based legal organization aimed at fighting the corruption in state and Government): During the last eight years of scandal during the Clinton administration, and the first eight months of the Bush Administration, reports this morning confirm that little to nothing was done to secure our nation’s airports and transportation systems as a whole—despite warnings. Instead, cosmetic reform of education, social security, taxes, and other less important issues were given precedence. In addition, the American people were led to believe that appropriate anti-terrorist counter measures were being taken. Instead of telling the truth so the problems could be addressed, politicians painted a rosy picture in order to be elected and re-elected.

9-11 could have been avoided if the Secret Services would have done their Work

2005-04-12T23:59:55-04:00

9-11 could have been avoided if the Secret Services would have done their Work

2005-04-12T23:59:22-04:00

Essay: African American Blues/Jazz

2005-03-08T22:52:49-05:00

Although the enslaved African people who were brought to America could not bring their musical instruments with them, they did not forget their musical traditions. Some slaves were not allow to speak their native language in American and added their own traditions styles to European American songs and Dances. They passed on traditional African musical styles from generation to generation. Gradually, several styles of African American music emerged in the United States. Today, two of the best styles are Blues and Jazz. The blues most likely began as solo singing. Blues have come from story songs, called ballads, and other songs that were sung at lively dances. Blues Singers Made slight changes to original melodies and rhythm ion order to add emotional expression, including sounds of moaning or crying. The emotions expressed were often sad and mournful. Later on, instruments such as the guitar, banjo, and harmonica were added to accompany solo blues singing. Eventually the piano, bass, drums, brass, and wood wind instruments were also added. Today, musicians follow a specific form or pattern of phrases when they sing or play the blues. One of American’s most famous blues Singers was Bessie Smith (1894-1937). Bessie was known as the Empress of the Blues, Bessie Smith Was Born in Chattanooga, Tennessee. Bessie's career began when she was 'discovered' by none other than Ma Rainey when Ma's revue, the Rabbit Foot Minstrels, was passing through Chattanooga around 1912 and she had the occasion to hear young Bessie sing. Ma took Bessie on the road with the show and communicated, consciously or not, the subtleties and intricacies of an ancient and still emerging art form. Bessie started working small-time traveling tent shows, such as Charles P. Bailey troupe and Pete Werley’s Florida Cotton Blossoms, carnivals, and honky-tonks. Her first recording, Down Hearted Blues, was released in the spring of 1923. Though released without special promotion, it was an immediate success, and had sold over two million copies by the end of the first year of release, an immense number for that time. Bessie started touring on the best race artist vaudeville circuits booked by the Toby, or TOBA, short for Theatre Owners Booking Associations, but also thought to stand for Tough on Black Artist. During the mid-twenties Bessie toured the entire south and most of the major northern cities, always as the star attraction on the bill. She was the highest paid Black entertainer

How The Other Half Lives

2004-11-28T23:36:39-05:00

Throughout the course of history, materials such as literature have been written about certain time periods. In time, these literary works can be assessed and interpreted to help discover facts about that period of history. One novel that can accomplish this task is How the Other Half Lives, by Jacob Riis, in which Riis describes how reform is needed. Before this novel was published, the United States was going through a period of rapid industrialization and urbanization. In the northeastern region of the United States, many factories appeared to increase the production of goods. Vast immigration caused overpopulation in major cities across the United States. These immigrants came to America to search for jobs to help provide better lives for their families. These immigrants arrived with very little money, therefore they needed cheap housing. The slums were the answer to this problem. These people were exploited by having to pay a large amount of money for such a tiny, disgusting room. The price of living in tenements soon became too much for some families, simply because the jobs did not pay enough. This lack of income caused the onset of child labor. Living conditions in tenements soon became exceptionally harmful, mainly because an overpopulated tenement spread disease very easily. Many people, mostly young children, were dying because of these diseases, as well as starvation. These horrible slums were a main reason why muckrakers started investigating. Muckrakers used journalism to explain to the population the idea that the slums needed much improvement. Articles were written by muckrakers to show the disgusting living and working conditions in the slums. Jacob Riis was one of these muckrakers who enlightened the public about the wretched state of the slums through How the Other Half Lives. How the Other Half Lives, Riis exposes the horrors inside the tenements and demands reform. Riis describes how the poor immigrants arriving in the country were being taken advantage of by the corrupt landlords. Riis depicts the lack of windows and crowded living space in the tenements, which allowed for the spread of diseases such as cholera and small pox to happen very quickly and easily. A significant percentage of the tenement dwellers ended up in hospitals because of these diseases. Landlords overcharged the immigrants for a crowded, tiny,

2004-10-21T05:11:11-04:00

Jefferson and Tocqueville

2004-10-19T22:15:30-04:00

During the summer of 1776, the thirteen American colonies of Britain stood at the cusp of a curve that Tocqueville formalized almost seventy years later. The Declaration of Independence served as the defining moment in a long struggle between independence and privileged aristocratic government. Jefferson, Hamilton, and et al. united in challenge to what they rightfully viewed as discriminatory treatment at the hands of King George’s Britain. Through this unity, they also sowed the seeds for the federal government that Toqcueville used as a basis for his observations on democratic systems, and the governments that they form. In fact, Toqcueville provides a point for point explanation of the desires expressed in the first two paragraphs of The Declaration. “All men are created equal…” evolves into “Men living at such times have a natural bias towards free institutions”. Jefferson, by assertion and the Constitutional Congress, by guarantee, allow Tocqueville, through logical, procedural analysis of post-Revolution America to prove and generalize. If all men are indeed created equal, argues Tocqueville, then all equal men will desire independence. Conversely, if all men are equal, then they will naturally desire independence. . Jefferson readily admits that rebellion is a heavy subject to consider, but defends the groups’ decision by placing individual freedoms over government existence. The home government encroaches on the basic tenements of freedom. The people in response have a right to defend from that encroachment, and if required, to forcibly stop it. Tocqueville observes that “democratic nations dread all violent disturbances”, but when their liberties are challenged, they “give or surrender additional rights to the central power”. The members of the Constitutional Congress allowed the Declaration to speak for them as a whole. Each particular state put aside their individual grievances in favor of the common cause. Tocqueville also explains the development of the Congress’s government into a centralized organization. The people abhor its interferences with their day-to-day lives; yet depend on it in times of need. This parallels the American colonies individual attempts to negotiate with the Crown before the Constitutional Congress. They wanted little part in collaboration, or subjection to the common will until King George III rebuked them. Only then, did they decide to unite for the common cause. The particular state legislatures finally looked upon each other for assistance through the intermediate body of the Constitutional Congress. Jefferson and the Constitutional Congress develop the general concept of

Why did the Cold War End?

2004-05-18T09:34:48-04:00

Tauseef Ahmed United States History May 13th 2004 Why did the Cold War End? One of the main events of the war-filled twentieth century was the Cold War – a state of tension between the United States of America and the Soviet Union from nineteen forty five, at the beginning of the Soviet expansion of communism in newly formed countries after Word War II, opposed by the United States to nineteen eighty nine with the fall of the Berlin Wall. The main focus of this research will be to state the reasons as to why this hugely acknowledged war comes to an end. It was the most unexpected event that happened and the credit must be given to the leaders on both sides. The Cold War eventually came to an end in 1989 as a result of Gorbachev’s Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (reconstruction) policies; the Soviet’s declining communist economy, the costly arms race, and the freedom issues among Baltic Republics, Poland, and East Germany within the Soviet bloc itself. When Mikhail Gorbachev became the General Secretary of the Soviet Union in 1985, he was determined to end corruption in the Soviet economy and get the U.S.S.R. back on its feet. To achieve this goal he announced two new policies Glasnost and Perestroika. Glasnost or openness was the policy that ended the strict censorship, allowed Soviet citizens to speak openly about their society’s problems and issues, and abandoned the ban of books and foreign radio broadcasts. The significance of this new policy was that it helped Soviet Union become a more open society and the media freedom brought many issues in front of the government. The second policy, Perestroika or reconstruction was introduced to help reform the Soviet economy by ending inefficiency and corruption in the system. The policy also promoted private enterprise, according to which the production prices and costs became more efficient. Planning was decentralized so local factories had more power of making decisions. According to this policy multi-candidate elections would be held, although each participant had to be member of a communist party. These were major steps to reform the Soviet Union and eventually this movement toward openness helped end the Cold War. The all new Sinatra Doctrine was also introduced by Gorbachev in 1989 renouncing the Brezhnev Doctrine. Introduced by Alexander Dubcek in 1968, the Brezhnev Doctrine declared that every socialist country in Soviet bloc belonged to the Soviet Empire. It was

Matter of Principle: Victoria Woodhull

2004-05-06T18:30:11-04:00

Victoria Claflin Woodhull was a lobbyist, businesswoman, writer, and investor who advocated women’s equality in status, work, home, and politics. She worked against the 19th century notions that daughters, mothers, and wives should be silent and submissive. She called for a vote and a voice in all matters of life and citizenship. She was a modern woman ahead of her time. She spoke frankly in the need for women to take control of their lives including their health and family planning. Victoria spoke with bold honesty of her controversial principles and did not mince words. She savagely criticized hypocrisies in society and government. Victoria Claflin was the seventh born of Reuben “Buck” Claflin and Roxanna Hummel Claflin’s ten children, in Homer, Ohio on September 23, 1838. According to “The Terrible Siren” by Emanie Sachs Arling, Roxanne instilled in her children a deep sense of loyalty to family and a sense that they were special and different from other people. Roxanne was also deeply devoted to religion, reliant on the tent revivalism that was popular at the time. The fervor of those revivals must have been the only match in the intensity of the Claflin household (Arling 3-35). Spiritual healing and communication with spirits, Victoria claimed to be directed by the spirit of Demosthenes. She married Calvin Woodhull at the age of fifteen. He was trained as a Doctor but was a troubled alcoholic. Woodhull traveled the country as she supported her first husband and her two children. She came to St. Louis as a Spiritualist magnetic healer and there she met the man who was to become her second husband, Col. James Harvey Blood, a Civil War Veteran (Horowitz 87). The Free Love Doctrine that Victoria preached was introduced to her by her second husband Col. Blood and enforced by her association with Stephen Pearl Andrews when the family moved to New York. Andrews was a radical intellectual and had been involved with “Modern Times”, a free love community experiment (Horowitz 88). Because of her reputation as a Spiritual healer she and her sister Tennie gained the audience of Cornelius Vanderbilt, whose efforts to contact his deceased mother and son advertised his belief in Spiritualism. The brokerage firm owned by Victoria Woodhull and her sister Tennessee Claflin was supported with advice and initial funding by Vanderbilt (Horowitz 92). Victoria announced, in 1870, her intention to run for president in 1872 as

persuasive speech

2004-05-05T09:54:16-04:00

“It is a great shock at the age of five or six to find that in a world of Gary Coopers you are the Indian.” James Baldwin The year would have been one in the late 1920’s when James Baldwin was aged five or six, yet 75 years on, and many years after his death, few things have changed for people of minority; and it is as simple as cowboys and Indians. Because of immaterial issues such as a person’s name, how they look, talk and act, they are persecuted by those who fear the “different”, just as when white man first inhabited America their fear of native Indians was provoked by them looking, acting and no doubt speaking differently. James Baldwin, in his quote, indicates the distress that an innocent child faces when the realization of discrimination being adamant in their lives is founded and at the same time comprehending that for no other reason than being “different” (than those who have claimed superiority) they have drawn the short stick in life. Hate has plagued society for longer than can be remembered with a historical process having developed in which one comes to know themselves in relation to someone different to them. History is overwhelmed with discrimination, prejudice and intolerance. It was devastating when whites hated the Indians hundreds of years ago, it was ugly when the whites hated blacks through hundreds of years of slavery, it was repulsive when Hitler promoted hate against those of Jewish decent and in fact everyone different to himself and it is still considerably alarming in today’s unstable society. Amongst the human race there has always been someone to be hated, and even more people to hate them. Discrimination is so prominent in society that groups are formed with generally no other common interests than their hate for other groups. The John Birch Society, Ku Klux Klan, Invisible Empire, NAAWP, White Aryan Resistance, American Front, Nazi Skinheads, Posse Comitatus, Aryan Nation, The Order and National Alliance, just to name a few. Furthermore, the formation of these groups calls for the people they target to feel hate towards them, creating one vicious cycle of extreme dislike. As James Baldwin once said, “People who treat others as less than human must not be surprised when the bread they have cast on the waters comes floating back to them, poisoned.” Unfortunately for society this

Mississippi burnt-historys distorted remains

2004-05-05T09:50:03-04:00

In his 1988 film Mississippi Burning, Director Alan Parker sets out to corner the audience into an awareness of the segregation and bigotry in America’s south during the 1960s. Ironically he attempts to achieve this by using cinematic methods that fall in line with exactly what his film’s central message is attacking; the ugly stereotyping of race and class. While the film’s message is as important in today’s society, where segregation of race and class still occurs, the use of blatant misrepresentations to develop, or rather manipulate, the emotions of the audience is distasteful not to mention arrogantly hypocritical. Parker’s film roughly portrays the events surrounding the investigation into the 1964 disappearance of three young civil rights workers (two white, one black) in the Deep South; a time and place representing one of the ugliest periods in America’s history. But contrary to what you may believe, the film manages to depict Mississippi in the 1960s more unattractively than history itself suggests. Through its use of oversimplified, stereotypical representations of race and class, Mississippi Burning creates a dim image in the viewer’s mind; one that is ultimately more evident than the message the film was intended to expose. These representations so simple that according to the film only the southern hicks were racist, only the southern blacks were victims, only one class, the northern F.B.I agents, namely agents Ward (William Dafoe) and Anderson (Gene Hackman), could save them and they could only save them by using violence. As is the case with many films that serve the purpose of entertaining audiences, Mississippi Burning develops an easy to understand and even easier to hate villain. From the film’s outset the audience is left vulnerable to the manipulated representation of the white Mississippian’s violent tendencies. Audiences are regularly presented with the image of lower-class, inbred and uneducated hicks from the south with an undying intolerance toward outsiders. Alan Parker fails to realise that his film’s depiction of southern characters is no less racist than how they are portrayed to be, not to mention how clichéd their portrayal is. What the film fails to suggest other than through a single character, Mrs. Pell (Frances McDormand), the wife of a Klan leader (Brad Dourif), is that while many Mississippians were full of hate and intolerance to outsiders, not all, and maybe not even the majority, were brainless , ignorant Klan people. If by twenty minutes

IB history chapter 10 outline, out of many

2004-03-02T06:05:23-05:00

Chapter 10 I. The New Democratic Politics in North America A. Continental Struggles Over Popular Rights 1. In 1821, Mexico achieved independence from Spain 2. Spanish rule left a legacy of social divide 3. the constitution of 1824, closely modeled to the U.S. constitution, crated a federal republic but continued a powerful political role for the Catholic Church and granted the president extraordinary powers in times of emergency 4. General Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana: strongest of the early president; saved Mexico from Spanish invasion; overthrow an unpopular dictatorship 5. the independence of Haiti in 1804 set the pattern for events in many other Caribbean islands in subsequent years a. destroyed the sugar industry b. revolts c. abolition of slavery d. loss of local political autonomy e. economic collapse 6. the economic collapse following emancipation destroyed political authority of white elites 7. in 1837, both upper and lower Canada rebelled against the limited representative government that the British government had imposed in the Constitutional Act of 1791 8. Most serious revolts occurred in French Lower Canada; British government refused to recognize the French-Canadian demand for their own political voice 9. 1840: Britain abolished government of lower Canada and joined it to Upper Canada; opposed by French Canadians; purpose of the union was to “abandon their vain hopes of nationality” 10. in 1850’s the U.S. foundered on sectional differences that not even political democracy could reconcile B. The Expansion and Limits of Suffrage 1. before 1800- limited voters (less than ½ the male population) 2. wealthy held political power until 1825 when the “Virginia Dynasty” of presidents (Jefferson, Madison, Monroe) served 3. Westward expansion changed nature of American politics; mobility promoted change by undermining traditional authority structures in the older states 4. rapid western expansion bolstered national pride 5. nine new states west of the Appalachians offered their political perspective 6. westerners, as a whole, shared common concerns and attitudes 7. new western states extended the right to vote to all white males over the age of 21 8. Kentucky: universal manhood suffrage 9. Tennessee and Ohio: low taxpayer qualification by 1820, most of the older states followed suit 10. Jeffersonian Republicans achieved suffrage for all men who paid taxes or served in the militia (nearly everyone) in 1817 (Connecticut) 11. South Carolina: redistribution of power in 1808; led to demand for suffrage which became low in 1810 12. “laggards” (Rhode Island, Virginia, Louisiana) didn’t liberate their voting qualifications until later- but by 1840, more than 90% of adult white males in the nation could vote; presidential electors were now elected by direct vote 13. universal white manhood suffrage was far from true universal suffrage; voting remained barred to most of the nation’s free African American males

Puritans

2004-01-16T14:47:37-05:00

Tauseef Ahmed Research Paper "Puritan Lifestyle, Ethics and Contributions in the Development of the United States" Puritans were a group of people who believed in Puritanism, a movement to purify the Church of England, started in the 16th century. The purpose of this movement was to simply cleanse the Anglican Church, which they believed was going in the wrong direction. When the number of Puritans starts to increase, they were persecuted in England and many moved away from the country to settle elsewhere in Europe. Later on when the new colonies were being established in the Americas, many Puritans moved from Europe to settle in the continent. In 1629 a colony was founded in the New World called Massachusetts Bay by Puritans. However, the influence of Puritanism didn’t decline from Europe until 17th and 18th century. Besides religious influence, there were many other contributions that were made by the Puritans, such as the development of town meetings, stress on the value education, and enhancement on farming, however, they have failed to maintain their status and influence in the world today. Puritans had a variety of beliefs and many were considered as rules and laws in Puritan colonies. They believed in the total corruption of humans at the point they are born, which is the concept of original sin. Unconditional Election was also an idea believed by Puritans, which basically means God saves those who he wishes, the concept of predestination. The also believed in Irresistible Grace, which means that whoever God is pleased with, obtains the grace, and in Perseverance of the saints, which signifies that those who are elected by God have the power or permission to interpret His will. Many Puritan writers were very much influenced by their religious studies and many writers tried to make God more relevant to the world and tried to transform His mysteriousness into simplicity that the people could easily understand. John Winthrop, a Puritan leader started establishing a new colony in 1629 with a thousand Puritan settlers. This colony was situated in Massachusetts and the town was called Salem. Two hundred people died during the winter and another two hundred returned to England in the same year. However, within the next ten years there were almost twenty thousand people living in the colony. From 1640 the colony was on its own without any help from the English authorities and after nine years from when Winthrop died,

Causes, Morality, and Demise of American Civil Defense

2003-12-11T22:34:49-05:00

An Examination of the Causes, Morality, and Demise of American Civil Defense While there are conflicting and overlapping reasons as to why “civil defense” became an important issue in America in the 1950’s and 1960’s, the fact remains that Americans became obsessed with civil protection and the threat of thermonuclear war. This took the form of general preparation for an attack, such as the construction of bomb shelters, stockpiling of food supplies, perfecting emergency drills in schools and homes, and even forming militias like the notorious “Minute-men” which prepared for a guerrilla war against a possible post-nuclear Soviet invasion of the United States. In a very interesting argument, Elaine Tyler May links the rise of civil defense to the growing “cult of domesticity.” She shows that alarm pertaining to the breakdown of the traditional family went hand in hand with the larger fear of American nuclear annihilation. May argues that as a result, civil defense measures were assessed to combat both fears simultaneously. Margot Henriksen contends that this trend of civil defense, and particularly the building of individual bomb shelters, eventually led to a general reexamination of the ethics of civil defense and the morality of nuclear war. Henriksen shows that both a general long-term apathy toward civil defense, as well as the ethical examination of shelter techniques, led to the quick demise of American civil defense. In a very profound article, Elaine Tyler May argues that “profound connections existed among anxieties over sexual roles, the cold war, and a burgeoning family ideology” (Tyler 153). After World War II, women were urged, either discretely or explicitly, by government agencies, private interests, and the popular media, to get married and to observe the role of homemaker. But in order to give the women a sense of “national purpose,” (analogous of course to the public role that women held in wartime defense industries), women were enlisted in the program of “Home Protection and Safety” developed by Jean Wood Fuller of the newly created Federal Civil Defense Administration (FCDA). Women were encouraged to draw upon their “natural” domestic capabilities to provide a service in the home that corresponded to the realities of the nuclear age. “Home nursing,” May explains, “was one important area. Mothers could learn first aid in order to enhance and professionalize their nurturing role. In the event of a nuclear

The Puritan’s Lives Affected by Religion

2003-12-08T21:16:55-05:00

The Puritan’s Lives Affected by Religion The Puritan’s Lives Affected by Religion The

James Baldwin

2003-12-06T00:33:16-05:00

American Negro In James Baldwin’s essay, “The American Dream and the American Negro,” as he reflects on the experience of black Americans, he states that the so-called “American Dream” does not apply to the “American Negro.” Baldwin says that the American white man does not take notice or appreciate the hard and free labor the American Negro did which helped to build the United States. He uses many examples to show the reader difficult plight of black men and women in America. The South is used as an example. He states that it “could not conceivably be what [it is] if it had not been (and this is still so) for the cheap labor” (Baldwin p380). The statement is bold, but effective in illustrating his point. The examples he uses throughout the essay make the essay convincing. Baldwin states that his culture, his history, is rendered meaningless in the white society around him. The American Negro, being completely subjugated, has had his own opportunity for a unique sense of reality destroyed. The American Negro built America, according to Baldwin. The black man picked cotton, built railroads, worked and helped to make America the nation it is today. According to Baldwin, the South would not be a powerful influence in the government if it had not been for the American Negro. Further since the United States is the major world power and the South is a major element in that power structure, the black man's contribution is therefore even more significant. The average white man does not take notice, appreciate, or respect the hard work the black men did for the South. Their hard work was for America, and black men and women have the realization that the country they have put their sweat into has done nothing for them. The country they identify themselves with, live, and work hard for, has no true place for them. While since World War II, a new sense of the true history of Africa has emerged giving some sense of hope to black men and women that they can form some sense of history; still blacks are faced with a white society that does not understand. Baldwin cites that Robert Kennedy stated that in 40 years there could be a black president. Not only does this sound condescending, coming from the scion of an elite, wealthy, aristocratic family, it also has a bitter ring

The Expatriates of the 1920's

2002-12-03T13:00:00-05:00

1ex•pa•tri•ate- 1: to withdraw (oneself) from residence in or allegiance to one's native country 2: intransitive senses: to leave one's native country to live elsewhere; also: to renounce allegiance to one's native country Merriam-Webster Dictionary Nothing before, or since has equaled the mass expatriation of the 1920’s. It was as if a great draft of wind picked up these very peculiar people and dropped them off in a European life style. Europe and the rest of the world were beginning to see a large population of these American expatriates. “… the younger and footloose intellectuals went streaming up the longest gangplank in the world.” (Cowley 79) Along with the intellectuals went the wealthy élite, the recent college graduates, the art students, and the recent war veterans aptly called “The Lost Generation”. Although many went all over the world, the largest density of these expatriates was in France. “Indeed, to young writers like ourselves, a long sojourn in France was almost a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.” (Cowley 102) Many expatriates flocked to Paris to follow forerunners in the movement such as Ezra Pound and Gertrude Stein. Most of the expatriates wished to have an introduction to Gertrude Stein at her apartment. There they would discuss art, literature, and the ideals of America for hours on end. Gertrude Stein characterized the expatriates’ view of America when she said, “America is my country, and Paris is my home town”. (Stein) This idea, of having a place that you consider your home, but not your homeland, is the basis of the expatriate movement. The writing of this era was influenced by a few things. With the new ideas of America, there also came much criticism of it to. After World War One, many Americans became somewhat dissatisfied with the way that their own country’s people and leaders acted. This was also a catalyst in the massive expatriation that occurred. Also, it is speculated that many war veterans could have developed various and unknown disorders caused by the type of warfare in which they had taken part. The optimistic culture of The Roaring Twenties also could have been a factor in the attitudes towards America and the writing that developed from it. Through a close study of the Expatriates, I will propose this list of probable influences towards the attitudes and writing that occurred. 1.) World War One, and the physical affects that it created among American and

The Salem Witch Trial

2002-11-27T13:00:00-05:00

The Salem Witchcraft was a series of undesirable events, which was powered by paranoia and fear. Though several witch trials occurred before the Salem Witch Trial, this was the most well known of all. Many innocent people were accused of witchcraft which resulted to 19 men and women that were hanged, 17 innocents that died in unsanitary prisons, and an 80-year old man that was crushed to death by putting stones on top of his stomach until he confesses (movie: The Crucible). In some accounts, it was reported that two dogs were stoned to death for cooperating with the Devil. Why did the Salem Witch trial occur? Were these trials appropriate? Or were they truly a Devil’s work? The Salem Witch Trials might have occurred for a variety of reasons such as people’s ignorance that led to superstitions. It might have also occurred because people’s crave for power, or it might also be because of fear. In the early years of America, people were mostly unaware of certain things. Sickness, for instance, was an important issue for people didn’t know how to manage or cure such complex illnesses. The Puritans, during the colonial times, didn’t have much information about certain things. They came to believe that certain unexplainable events were done by a powerful source of evil thus brought about superstitions. The infamous Witch Trials done at Salem, Massachusetts, which spread across the continent, was an example of people’s injustice acts in response to superstitions. One of the major cause of the Salem Witchcraft trials was superstition, an “irrational belief or practice resulting from ignorance or fear of the unknown” (www.encyclopedia.com). A lack of scientific knowledge led many people to be convinced that, witches were responsible to the death of an animal or a livestock: John Rogger “testified that upon the threatening words “ of Martha Carrier “ his cattle would be strangely bewitched.”(Mather, p55) John Roger believed on superstitions; thus he proposed that Martha was a witch who was killing his cows. It is easy to see how the people of Salem were so vulnerable to the notion of witches taking over their town. Furthermore Tituba, Reverend Parris’s slave, practiced ritual dance and “black magic” in her early years in Africa. She influenced most of the girls in town through her stories. The girls believed on superstitions which overall started the Salem Witch Trials and made it possible for the

How Did The Environment Affect The Native American Indians With Particular Reference To The Woodland

2002-11-24T13:00:00-05:00

How Did The Environment Affect The Native American Indians With Particular Reference To The Woodland Indians? The environment hugely affected the Native American Indians in many different ways. This is because of the way in which the Indians used the environment and the surrounding land. The Indians were very close to nature, and so that meant that any changes in nature would be changes in the Indians.

Land

The Indians thought of land very differently to the white man. The land was sacred, there was no ownership, and it was created by the great spirit. They could not sell their land to others, whereas the white people could fence off the land which belonged to them, and sell it freely to whoever they wanted. The Europeans didn’t think that the Indians were using the land properly, so in their eyes, they were doing a good favour to the earth. To the Indians, the land was more valuable than the money that the white man had brought with him, even though it didn’t belong to them Indians lived all over America, in many different environments including the flatlands, the forests, the mountains, the deserts, the prairies, on the coast, and even in the arctic. All these Environments affected the different Indians in different ways, so that different Indians evolved over time.

Religion

Religion was a very big part in many Indians life. Almost every part of Indian life is related to religion, the land is sacred, and religion plays a part in what can be done with it, the first Indians had many different religions, and they continued to have religion for the whole of their lives. Dress was affected, many Indians wore special clothes and jewellery of religious importance. Religion often changed family life, the children respected their elders, especially their grandparents, and the Indians believed in divorce and marriage. Education was religious, the boys were taught to hunt, and the girls to treat leather and prepare food. The Indians believed all life to be sacred, but it could be hunted, as long as it was treated with respect, so this affected the way they hunted, and what food they had.

Shelter

The environment also affected the Indians shelter in many ways. Depending on where they lived, the Indian tribes had different ways of protecting themselves from the elements using the available resources, and different designs for the general climate. For example, the Indians living in the mountainous

Articles of Confederation

2002-10-29T13:00:00-04:00

The Articles of Confederation, one of the first official documents establishing the government of the United States, was ineffective and failed to provide a strong government. During this significant period in the history of the United States, anarchy and revolution were growing because of the following reasons. 1) The Continental Congress controlled public affairs but there was nothing in the Articles that gave Congress the power to enforce laws or unify the States. 2) There was no solid monetary system to ensure that taxes would be paid or to protect commerce, both nationally and foreign trade. 3) The country lacked unity and strength because there was no leadership. The Articles were ineffective because Congress only had the power to recommend actions to the States. It could not enforce its recommendations or laws. Each State had its own constitution, monetary system, and means to enforce the law. Each State had a stronger commitment to the State laws and to the State's own self-interests than to the recommendations of Congress. Regionalism pitted one State against another, which decreased the sense of unity in the country. For example, when Congress recommended an impost, or duty, on imported goods, the State of Rhode Island voted to reject the idea because they felt it was unfair and was against the constitution of the State. The Articles failed to provide a solid monetary system to ensure that taxes would be paid or to protect commerce. Congress had no way to collect taxes to pay off pre-war debts. This led to chaos and anarchy when soldiers that hadn't been paid marched on Philadelphia, and Congress had to flee to Princeton, New Jersey. Each State had it's own money, but there was no national money system. Since the money had no value from state to state, the people began to use the barter system of trade. This reduced the amount of trade and importation of goods. There was very little economic progress and growth during this period even though the population was increasing. However, Article six of the Articles of Confederation states that “No state shall lay any imposts or duties.” This was a strong point of the Articles, yet it needed modifications. Self interest of the States and of individuals added to the cause of the problems. For example, John Jay tried to create a treaty with Great Britain that would have been bad for the merchants of the

Government Providing for the Poor

2002-10-29T13:00:00-04:00

“In the Middle Ages men were united by custom and prescription into associations, ranks, guilds, and communities of various kinds. These ties endured as long as life lasted. Consequently, society was dependant, throughout all its details, on status, and the tie, or bond, was sentimental. In out modern state, and in the United States more than anywhere else, the social structure is based on contract, and status is of the least importance.” This quote by William Graham Sumner in his 1883 speech “What Social Classes Owe to Each Other” illustrates my main focus of this week’s proposed question, “Does American Government have an obligation to provide for the poor?” Sumner supports that the American Government does not have an obligation to provide for the poor because in America, all people have the opportunity to work hard and bring themselves out of poverty, where in Europe and their other native lands, people were trapped in a caste system in which they could not escape. In America, there was is a defined class system in which those living in the society were confined and hard work, followed by success, is a luxury offered in America. By living in a free state like America, Sumner says, its citizens live equally among one another in a society based on a contract, which allows the most leeway for individual developments and successes. Every man must fend for himself in this society that allows for personal establishment. Sumner also says, “It follows, however, that one man, in a free state, cannot claim help from, and cannot be charged to give help to, another.” He directly says that it cannot be imposed upon the American Government that hard-working tax-paying citizens should have to financially assist the plight of the poor. The Populist Party Platform of 1892 says in its second declaration that “Wealth belongs to him that creates it…If any will not work, neither shall he eat.” The Populist Party realized that men were fully entitled to their earned keep and should they not work, they should not be provided for by the government, especially not by collected tax money. Sumner goes on to say that those who rely on the support of the government become so dependent that welfare inevitably produces lazy citizens. He says, “The man who has nothing to raise himself above poverty finds that the social doctors flock about him, bringing the capital which

Culture Clash: The Puritans and the Native Americans

2002-10-18T14:00:00-04:00

In 1608, a group of Christian separatists from the Church of England fled to the Netherlands and then to the “New World” in search of the freedom to practice their fundamentalist form of Christianity (dubbed Puritanism). The group of people known as the Native Americans (or American Indians) are the aboriginal inhabitants of the Northern and Southern American continents who are believed to have migrated across the Bering land bridge from Asia around 30,000 years ago. When these two societies collided, years of enforced ideology, oppression and guerrilla warfare were begun. The great barriers of religion, ethics and world-views are the three largest factors which lead to the culture clash between the Puritans and the Native Americans. Religion played a very important role in both Puritan and Native American society, though their ideologies differed greatly. According to Puritan beliefs, God had chosen a select number of people to join him in heaven as his elect. The Native Americans, on the other hand, believed that everyone was the same; no one was better than anyone else. As Sitting Bull once said, “Each man is good in [the Great Spirit’s] sight. (Quotes from our Native Past). This theory was in direct conflict with the Puritan’s view. The means through which the beliefs of these two groups were carried on also differed greatly. The Puritans had their Bible which detailed their entire religion and held the answers to all possible questions. The Native Americans on the other hand relied on oral transmission of their theology. Thus, while the Puritans had a constant place to turn to when they wanted to figure out what they believed, Native Americans were forced to fill in the blanks between stories they had heard when it came to their basic ideals. This aspect made them both unable to relate to one another. The most prominent difference between the two religions were their gods. The Puritans believed in one God and one God only. The Native Americans, though also worshipping their own almighty “Great Spirit,” took further reverence for all living (and once living) things, worshipping the trees and their ancestors as well as their omnipotent Tirawa (or Wakan Tanka). The Puritans, holding all aspects of the Bible literal and as divine mandate, saw this worship of beings other than their God as idolatry (which was in clear violation of the first commandment). Therefore, the Puritans held the Native American

A Neo-Aristotelian Analysis of Ronald Reagan’s: The Challenger Disaster

2002-10-05T14:00:00-04:00

While seated in the Oval Office of the White house, January 28, 1986 President Ronald Reagan delivers his speech The Challenger Disaster; hours after the space shuttle The Challenger explodes while in take off. Thousands witnessed this horrifying event live in person and on television. This mission was very unique allowing the first civilian to ever be allowed in space during a mission. She was aboard The Challenger as an observer in the NASA Teacher in Space Program. Ironically, nineteen years before this disaster, three astronauts were tragically lost in an accident on the ground. President Reagan remembers those astronauts that were lost not only the day of the disaster, but also those who were lost nineteen years before. He conducts this speech not only to mourn the death of The Challenger astronauts, but for the families and those who were impacted from this event. He especially calls out to the schoolchildren of America who were watching this event live as the shuttle took off. As the President of the United States, Reagan earned the nickname "The Great Communicator" due to his ability to convey his beliefs concerning economic and domestic policies to the public. This speech is just one example of how well Reagan spoke to the American public on a personal level and profoundly influenced the nations confidence in itself after this tragic event. Reagan used his speaking ability to explain the important policies of his administration. “Speaking directly to the American people as a "citizen-president," Reagan delivered addresses that conveyed his views of national security, the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), economic policies, and the nation's war on drugs. Delivered with sincerity uncharacteristic of the stereotypical politician” (http://reagan.webteamone.com). The Challenger Disaster is just another example of Reagan’s profound speaking abilities. This speech has meaning, excites emotions and reaches out to all, which makes it a great speech. Although Reagan chooses to ignore his administrations responsibility in The Challenger disaster, he concentrates instead on reassurance of the nation which makes this speech uplifting to the American people.

Invention

To do a rhetorical analysis of this speech we would follow the Neo-Aristotelian approach. The Neo-Aristotelian approach consists of five canons which are invention, organization, style, memory and delivery. First I will start off with Invention. According to Foss “the critic’s concern in applying the canon of invention is with the speaker’s major ideas, line of argument, or content” (29). Invention is divided

Historical Misconceptions About Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy

2002-07-30T14:00:00-04:00

All Presidents have faced the challenge of keeping people united in times of conflict and turmoil; this specifically applied to Presidents Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy. They were faced with solving delicate situations involving segregation and the civil rights of American citizens in two different centuries. While there has been the enduring impression that both presidents held high ideals with regard to the African American population, a closer examination of history could lead one to believe that Lincoln was the false freer of the enslaved and Kennedy was the false figurehead for the Civil Rights movement. Abraham Lincoln entered his first term as president following the leaders Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan. Pierce was known as “an outspoken critic of federal involvement in state and locale issues” (http://www.npr.org). His veto of a bill which would have provided services and support for the mentally handicapped “established the rationale behind government uninvolvement in public health issues into the twentieth century” (http://www.npr.org). This climate of governmental uninvolvement persisted into the term of James Buchanan, a time well-known for the Dred Scott decision, which stated that “congress had no constitutional power to deprive persons of their property rights in slaves in the territories” (http://www.whitehouse.gov). Later, Buchanan “reverted to a policy of inactivity that continued until he left office” (http://www.whitehouse.gov). Therefore, upon entering office, Lincoln found the stage set for an uphill climb with a sharply divided country and a government unused to active leadership by a president whose main agenda was to unite the country, even if this meant an involvement in previously “untouchable” states rights. The issue of slavery was at the center of the controversies, and decisions in the previous two administrations only compounded the difficulties encountered in any actions that Lincoln might make. The issue of segregation continued even up to one hundred years later when Kennedy became president following Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower. However, unlike Pierce and Buchanan, the decisions and actions of both of these presidents should have made any stand that Kennedy would take for the civil rights movement easier. After World War Two had ended, Truman proposed twenty-one main policy points for the betterment of America in an attempt to calm the unrest among the American workers, as this was a time of many labor strikes and problems involving citizens who were unsatisfied with the economy. These twenty-one points included innovations such as minimum wage,

California History

2002-05-21T14:00:00-04:00

1. EPIC

EPIC is the Educational Participation in Communities. This organization involves students as volunteers in the fight against poverty and social neglect in local communities. The goal is social awareness and student involvement. It says that poverty, neglect, and social inequity are a growing reality for millions of people in America. Families are losing their homes, people can't find good jobs, children go hungry, and education in the inner-city is a disaster. There is a is problem because the public and community programs that serve as a safety net to assist such populations are strained beyond their capacity and are usually understaffed and under-funded. Since they cannot do the job without help, EPIC helps. It recruits college students to do volunteer work in schools, hospitals, community centers, legal aid, probation, youth agencies, and other and public service programs. EPIC volunteers provide thousands of volunteer hours to the community.

2. Earl Warren

Earl Warren was a political leader. He was a governor of California, but he is remembered as the chief justice who led the Supreme Court of the United States when it made big changes in civil rights laws and in criminal procedures. Warren was a liberal Republican, and he was born in Los Angeles, California. He was elected attorney general of California in 1938. During his four years in office he gained standing as a strong enemy of racketeers. He was elected governor of California in 1942. His progressive policies won him bipartisan support and he was reelected as governor in 1946 and 1950. He was seen as an activist on the Supreme Court, as well as a liberal.

3. Pat Brown

Pat Brown was the governor of California. He was elected two times, for two terms (12 years total). He was a Democrat. He thought that nobody could beat him, but the Republican, Ronald Reagan, beat him in the 1966 election. Brown had good policies, and by 1962 California had a booming economy and the largest population of any US state. Brown generously funded social programs that were a factor to the state's prosperity. He enlarged the University of California system, and he built many water projects. During Brown's two terms a governor, the California legislature passed some of the most progressive civil rights laws in the US.

4. Ronald Reagan

In 1966 Ronald Reagan beat Pat Brown by a landslide in the election for California governor. Brown believed that it would be

Segregation and Housing in Chicago

2002-05-06T14:00:00-04:00

Chicago was the best place to live and visit for anyone. Many people traveled from far places to visit and live in Chicago. Long after the World War II many things started reshaping America. One of the most significant was the racial change all over America but specifically in Chicago. Many southern blacks started to move into Chicago. Chicago started to become mostly dominated by blacks and other minorities while whites started to move into the suburbs of Chicago. “Beginning in the 1930s, with the city’s black population increasing and whites fleeing to the suburbs, the black vote became a precious commodity to the white politicians seeking to maintain control” (Green, 117). Many of the mayors such as Edward J. Kelly, Martin H. Kennelly, and Richard J. Daley won over the blacks and got their votes for them to become mayor. The black population grew by 77 percent by the 1940. The white population dropped from 102,048 to 10,792 during the years of 1940 to 1960. With all of these people moving into Chicago there had to be more housing. There were many houses built to accommodate all the people. Martin H. Kennelly at one time wanted to tear down slums and have public housing built in the black ghetto. Many of the blacks wanted to escape these ghettos so some of them; if they could they would try to move to the white communities. When the blacks would try to move into the white communities they were met with mobs. There were many hurdles that blacks had to overcome not only in Chicago but all over America. The blacks of Chicago had to fight for a place to live and to find a mayor that would help them for who they are, not their color. Throughout Chicago there were many fights that blacks had to fight. It was not easy for blacks to live in the city because everywhere they went they were faced with whites trying to get them to move out. Led by comedian Dick Gregory, 75 people protested in the Bridgeport neighborhood. As these protestors walked many people of the Bridgeport neighborhood threw eggs and tomatoes, showed Ku Klux Klan signs and shouted, “Two-four-six-eight, we don’t want to integrate and Oh, I wish I was an Alabama trooper, that is what I’d really like to be-ee-ee. Cuz if I was and Alabama trooper, I could kill

1950's

2002-04-27T14:00:00-04:00

The 1950's were quite radical in fact, this is the decade that began rock n' roll, the civil rights movement, better family living, advances in technology, Fashion, medical research, other wonderful things this country was not used to seeing or hearing. The 1950's were looked at more as a state of mind or a way of living rather than just another decade or time era in American history. Everything was peaceful now, which looking back on the two world wars and the great depression this country was not used to at all. Nobody worried about war, nobody worried about how they were going to feed their children and keep a roof over their heads because everyone had jobs and the economy was doing great. (Edey, Maitlanded.57) Teenagers were having more fun than ever too. Rock n' roll was introduced to them and they all seemed at the time to know what they wanted out of life, to go to school, graduate, get a job, get married, and have children all in that order just as their parents had. (Clayton, Andrew.24) The 1950's were the most influential decade in American history because the civil rights act began, fashion was completely new and trendy, there were much advancement in entertainment and medicine, and suburban life was much more "functional" than any other decade in American history. One reason the 1950's were the most influential decade in American history is because rock and roll was introduced to the country and it let people forget about their morals for a while and just let loose to have fun. (Pareles, John.3) Elvis Presley was quite the king of rock and roll, with songs like hound dog, don't be cruel, and love me tender and ready teddy Elvis lit up the stage. ("Elvis Presley-Biographical Timeline-The Fifties") Elvis was born on January 8th 1935. He purchased his first guitar in 1946 for $12.95 at the local hardware store. In 1954 Sam Phillips teams Elvis up with local musicians Scotty Moore (guitar) and Bill Black (bass). By November of 1955 Elvis had signed his first record contract with RCA His contract was for $40,000, and a $5,000 signing bonus for Elvis. In April of 1956Elvis signed a seven-year movie contract with Hal Wallace and Paramount Pictures. The most famous film Elvis came out with ; Jailhouse Rock came out in May of 1957. This is the film that really

The Causes of the Cold War -- Post-Revisionist

2002-04-06T14:00:00-04:00

This is from AP history and bear with me because some of the stuff got a little screwed up in transit. :-) Dwight D. Eisenhower once said, “Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired signified, in the final sense, a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold but not clothed.” There was never a war that this idea can be more correct applied to than the Cold War. According to noted author and Cold War historian Walter Lippman, the Cold War can be defined as a state of tension between states, which behave with great distrust and hostility towards each other, but do not resort to violence. The Cold War encompasses a period from the end of the Second World War (WWII), in 1945, to the fall of the Soviet Union, in 1989. It also encompassed the Korean and Vietnam Wars and other armed conflicts in the Middle East and Africa, that, essentially, were not wars for people but instead for territories and ideologies. “Nevertheless, like its predecessors, the Cold War has been a worldwide power contest in which one expanding power has threatened to make itself predominant, and in which other powers have banded together in a defensive coalition to frustrate it---as was the case before 1815, as was the case in 1914-1918 as was the case from 1939-1945” (Halle 9). From this power contest, the Cold War erupted. In April 1945, Russian forces that had been triumphant at Stalingrad had pushed the German forces back into Germany and American and British forces that had been victorious in their invasion of Normandy did the same; they met at the Elbe River in central Germany (Lukacs 17). Europe was separated into two independent halves, one Russian occupied and the other American; from this division, the Cold War emerged. “When a power vacuum separates great powers, as one did the United States and the Soviet Union at the end of World War II, they are unlikely to fill it without bumping up against and bruising each other” (Gaddis). This ‘bumping’ and ‘bruising’ caused the tensions and hostilities that surfaced in the years following WWII. There are three doctrines examining the origins of the Cold War: Orthodox, the belief that “the intransigence of Leninist ideology, the sinister dynamics of a totalitarian society, and the madness of Stalin” (McCauley 88) caused the Cold War;

Rosa Parks: Life and Times

2002-03-25T13:00:00-04:00

Thesis Statement- Rosa Parks, through protest and public support, has become the mother of the civil rights changing segregation laws forever. Life - Rosa Parks was born only a month before world war one started in Europe on February 4, 1913. Parks mother worked as a school teacher in Tuskegee, Alabama. James McCauley, Rosa's dad was a carpenter. They lived in Tuskegee and owned farmland of their own. After Sylvester was born, Rosa's little brother, her father left them and went off to live in another town. He had been cheated out of his farmland by a white man and couldn't support the family any longer. Rosa her mother and her brother then moved to live with her grandparents on a farm in Pinelevel, which lay between Tuskegee and Montgomery, Alabama. It was a small plot of land, but it kept them all fed. From this point on Rosa was mainly brought up by her Grandparents with the assistance of her mother. Rosa gave up school when she came close to graduating, around the same time Rosa got married. Raymond Parks married Rosa McCauley December 18, 1932. He was a barber from Wedowee County, Alabama. He had little formal education but a thirst for knowledge. Her husband, Raymond Parks, encouraged her to finish her courses. In 1934 she received her diploma from Alabama State College. She was happy that she completed her education but had little hope of getting a better job. When Rosa had finished school she was lucky enough to get a job as a seamstress in a local sewing factory. Prior to the bus incident Rosa was still fighting. She had run-ins with bus drivers and was evicted from buses. Parks recalls the humiliation: "I didn't want to pay my fare and then go around the back door, because many times, even if you did that, you might not get on the bus at all. They'd probably shut the door, drive off, and leave you standing there." An event to remember....- While the fight by blacks for civil rights had been going on for years, it took one middle-aged black woman with tired feet and a strong will to really get the battle going. On the 1st of December 1955, seamstress Mrs. Rosa Parks, was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama for not standing and letting a white bus rider take her seat, she was found guilty of the crime of

Westward Expansion and Imperialism

2002-03-03T13:00:00-05:00

Throughout most of the nineteenth century, the United States expanded its territory westward through purchase and annexation. At the end of the century, however, expansion became imperialism, as America acquired several territories overseas. This policy shift from expansionism to imperialism came about as a result of American’s experience in the Spanish American War and the Congressional debates that followed the American victory. After temporarily resolving the problems of Reconstruction and Industrialization, Americans began to resume the course of expansion. The horrors of the Civil War had interrupted the original Manifest Destiny that began in the 1840s. Now, as pioneers settled the last western frontiers, expansionists looked yet farther to the west -- toward Asia and the Pacific. American ships had long been active in the Pacific. The New England whaling fleets scoured the ocean in search of their prey. As ships crossed the vast ocean to trade in Asia, islands in the Pacific became important stops for coal, provisions, and repairs. In the South Pacific, the American navy negotiated with awestruck natives for the rights to build bases on the islands of Midway and Samoa. This practice had been going on for a while. The Hawaiian Islands, which lie closest to the American mainland, had long been an important stop for the Pacific fleet. Eventually, the expansion to this area became imperialistic. Pearl Harbor, on the island of Oahu, offered one of the most attractive natural bases in the Pacific. Soon other Americans followed to become sugar planters and to establish profitable businesses. Americans were busy building huge plantations, warehouses, railroads, dry-docks, banks, hotels, and stores. They soon dominated the island's economy, and they were able to influence its government as well. Americans created and controlled Hawaii's legislature and cabinet, and they limited the power of the native king. As the century began to come to a close, disputes arose between the Kanaka and those of foreign descent. "Hawaii for Hawaiians" became the slogan of people who sought to restore the traditional ways of the kingdom. Others called for the annexation of Hawaii by the United States. Annexation would eliminate the recent trade restrictions on sugar and revive the island's faltering economy. The imperialistic was taking over the islands. The imperialistic attitude sprung from the American Victory in the Spanish-American War. Although the Spanish-American War and the intervention in the Philippines were preceded by fifty years of meddling in Latin America, and to

Theodore Roosevelt and Progressivism

2002-03-03T13:00:00-05:00

Despite the criticism of their reform efforts, Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson’s commitment to and success in achieving national reform made them successful progressive presidents. There hasn’t yet been a presidency that didn’t receive criticism, with or without justification. Roosevelt in particular, received a lot of praise and criticism for his successes and failures. Overall, however, both Roosevelt and Wilson acknowledged and were committed to bringing about changes during their presidencies. They were both good presidents for the Progressive Era. President Roosevelt was deeply criticized during his presidency. Robert La Follette, the Republican leader of Progressivism before Roosevelt, was one of Roosevelt’s biggest critics. In his Autobiography: A personal narrative of political experiences, he talks about Roosevelt’s reform policies, particularly his position on the Anti-Trust Law and his trust strategy in general, and how he didn’t solve the problems, but only increased the growth of monopolies and the power of business (Doc E). There were also many political cartoons published which criticized Roosevelt’s policies. One in particular pictures Roosevelt singing loudly his Progressive fallacies, with La Follette sulking in the background (Doc G). There was justification to criticize Roosevelt. Although he was infamous for his “square deal,” taking on trusts, he busted only about half as many trusts in twice as much time as President Taft later did. The cases he did take on were high profile, and he was noisy about them. Also, he may have only fought trusts because he thought it would be riskier to ignore them. Woodrow Wilson also had policies that were controversial, and the extent of his progressivism can be questioned. Wilson’s progressive attitude didn’t extent to many areas. For example, he didn’t reform the way government corruption occurred. He would even encourage this by giving his friends rewards and punishing his enemies. He operated on a minimal spoils system. He was also quite racist. His reform policies didn’t extend to African-Americans. He appointed many Southern racists to his cabinet and was strongly opposed to black suffrage. He considered enfranchisement an evil. Wilson also didn’t want to reform social injustices. Offering no support for the ratification a suffrage movement, Wilson preferred state action for women’s suffrage. Child labor was another issue he considered a state matter. Reform was something Wilson only considered on certain issues. Despite questions of motive and success, Roosevelt can be considered a successful progressive president and reformer. In his first inaugural

Native American Policy

2002-03-03T13:00:00-05:00

In the 30 years after the Civil War, although government policy towards Native Americans intended to shift from forced separation to integration into American society, attempts to “Americanize” Indians only hastened the death of their culture and presence in the America. The intent in the policy, after the end of aggression, was to integrate Native Americans into American society. Many attempts at this were made, ranging from offering citizenship to granting lands to Indians. All of these attempts were in vain, however, because the result of this policies is much the same as would be the result of continued agression. Beginning in the 1860s and lasting until the late 1780s, government policy towards Native Americans was aggressive and expressed zero tolerance for their presence in the West. In the last 1850s, tribal leaders and Americans were briefly able to compromise on living situations and land arrangements. Noncompliance by Americans, however, resumed conflict. The beginning of what would be called the “Indian Wars” started in Minnesota in 1862. Sioux, angered by the loss of much of their land, killed 5 white Americans. What resulted was over 1,000 deaths, of white and Native Americans. From that point on, American policy was to force Indians off of their land. American troops would force Indian tribe leaders to accept treaties taking their land from them. Protests or resistance by the Indians would result in fighting. On occasion, military troops would even lash out against peaceful Indians. Their aggression became out of control. Indian policy gradually shifted from this aggressive mindset to a more peaceable and soft line policy. The Indian Wars ended in 1980 with the Battle of Wounded Knee. The battle resulted in over 200 deaths, but also, almost officially, marked a change in Indian policy. Although the change had subtly began before then, policies then became more kind. The Peace Commission created the reservation policy, although this was created 27 years before the Battle at Wounded Knee. The Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 was the greatest of reform efforts. The Act provided the granting of landholding to individual Native Americans, replacing communal tribal holdings. Another policy, the Burke Act of 1906, allowed Indians to become citizens if they left their tribes. Citizenship was eventually granted to all Native Americans in the 1920s. Although the intentions of Indian policy shifted, the outcomes of these policies still helped to suppress Native Americans and their culture. The

James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams

2002-03-03T13:00:00-05:00

While President Jefferson's policies were to a great extent diverged from those of Washington and Adams', President Madison's policies were much the same as the Federalist presidents. President Jefferson worked to change many of the mindsets and policies set up by the Federalist Presidents, while Madison's attempts were to extend them. The success of each administration was unique from each other, however both presidents were Republican. The difference in policies shows the beginning of the individuality, uniqueness, and freedom so harbored in the United States. From the day of his inauguration, President Jefferson showed that his administration would be one of simplicity. He deliberately avoided the ornate way of the Federalists. Instead of insisting on horse and carriage 'parade-like' travel, he would walk to his destination whenever possible. He also avoided making flashy speeches, and wrote letters instead of making speeches when it would suffice. Even at dinners in his own home, he insisted on round tables so that everyone would be equal. He considered everyone, men and women, government officials and farmers, equal in all things, and this philosophy was reflected in his everyday conduct. Jefferson's simplicity also resided in his policy making. He appointed people of his own party to his cabinet; James Madison was appointed Secretary of State. His entire cabinet, in fact, was Republican. In lesser offices though, he didn't remove any Federalists, he simply waited for a vacancy to appear. Jefferson also tried to repeal many of the laws created by the Federalists, with a few exception, such as the national bank. He also favored a broad interpretation of the Constitution, whereas the Federalists wanted a more strict interpretation. This was shown when the debate about the Louisiana purchase began. He was in favor of implied power in the Constitution regarding the purchasing of such an enormous amount of land. In these ways, Jefferson's policies, while not always simple, were greatly distinct than those of the Federalists. President Madison's policies, however, were much the same as the Federalists. He endorsed strengthening the central government and giving it more power, which was basically a Federalist mindset. He wanted programs to achieve things such as better fortification, a stronger navy and permanent army, a new national bank, and a big national university. Madison managed to secure an army of about 10,000 and a strengthened navy. In addition, he, like Jefferson, used a broad interpretation of the Constitution to justify

Federalist Policies

2002-03-03T13:00:00-05:00

After the establishment of the constitution, the Federalist administrations faces many significant challenges when dealing with the economics of the United States; much of the country was divided over issues such as how to raise money, establishing a public credit system, how to pay the national debt, and whether or not a national bank should be established. Leaders like Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison came to represent the ideas of the people and as these ideas became more solid, debate and opposition rose. The Federalists saw multiple ways to resolve these issues, and the resolutions established that leadership in the United States would be successful. Raising revenue for the United States was the first economic issue the Federalists faced. This was the first and most important need they saw for the country. At first, James Madison proposed a small tax on imports, however, the high demand for money quickly increased the taxation. Also, the Tonnage Act of 1789 was passed, taxing American and foreign ships. American ships were not taxed as much as foreign ships, however. The issues of taxation and raising money also brought into play bigger issues, such as whether the United States should favor Britain or France in their economic policies, whether they should maintain taxation even at the expense of farmers, and whether the interests of northern manufacturers should be their biggest concern. The Tonnage Act was the beginning of increased revenue in the America, but a sound fiscal discipline was far from having been created. Another issue that was controversial was the establishment of a public credit system and paying the national debt. Alexander Hamilton was the main activist in this issue. He wrote several reports to the House of Representatives offering solutions to the problem. In his first report, he suggested that citizens who had government bonds should be able to turn them in for new, interest-bearing bond. He also thought that the government should make the states pay their debt to the government, which would be about $21 million. The problem with his ideas was that, in financial crisis, many farmers had sold their bonds at very low prices to speculators, and that with this plan, only the speculators would benefit, because they could trade in all of the bonds they bought very cheaply. The citizens argued that the they should be they should be paid back for their losses. Hamilton, however,

Wilson’s Fourteen Points: a Path to Peace or to Renewed Conflict

2002-03-03T13:00:00-05:00

Wilson’s Fourteen Points were a decent attempt at peace and restitution after the Great War; however, there were many inherent problems with the Wilsonian agenda. These problems were caused by many things, including Allied bias, American ambition, and Western European dominance. While trying to fix many problems in Europe, the Fourteen Points mainly concentrated on the things that were important to the Allied powers: France was bent on revenge, Great Britain was looking to further its power over the seas, and America was keen on becoming an even more powerful trade nation. The Allied Powers made it very hard for Germany and Austria and the newly formed countries in Eastern Europe to carry out many of the things set down in the Fourteen points, in particular, the idea of self-determination that is evident in over half of the points. Reading the Fourteen Points might lead a person to believe that the Allies were in favor of all forms of self-determination unconditionally; in fact, just the opposite was true. They used “self-determination as a formula for rearranging the balance of power in their own interests” (Keynes pp. 2). Point Five of the Wilsonian agenda was a testament to this. It called for the “free, open-minded adjustment of all colonial claims.” Essentially, what this did was allow countries to practice limited forms of self-determination, mainly by switching European rule from the more obvious direct control method, to indirect European control. Some countries were allowed independence, but those countries that were denied it became mandates; Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon are examples of the ladder. The main thing Point Five accomplished was that it allowed more colonial holdings to fall into Allied hands, especially those of Britain. The fact that the Allies used self-determination for their own interests is also the reason the people of Austria were not allowed to become a part of Germany. Allowing the union of Austria and Germany would only make Germany stronger, something France especially did not want. Self-determination was also used against Germany in other ways. By allowing Poland to become a country with access to the sea, Germany would be split in half, and former German territory would now be known as the Polish Corridor. Territory was also taken away from Germany to create the nation of Lithuania. The war had other consequences for Germany besides loss of territory. Germany was punished tremendously by the Wilsonian agenda and,

Black status: post civil war america

2002-03-03T13:00:00-05:00

After the emancipation of slaves in 1862, the status of African-Americans in post civil war America up until the beginning of the twentieth century did not go through a great deal of change. Much legislation was passed to help blacks in this period. The Civil Rights act of 1875 prohibited segregation in public facilities and various government amendments gave African-Americans even more guaranteed rights. Even with this government legislation, the newly dubbed ‘freedmen’ were still discriminated against by most people and, ironically, they were soon to be restricted and segregated once again under government rulings in important court cases of the era. Reconstruction was intended to give African-Americans the chance for a new and better life. Many of them stayed with their old masters after being freed, while others left in search of opportunity through education as well as land ownership. However this was not exactly an easy task. There were many things standing in their way, chiefly white supremacists and the laws and restrictions they placed upon African-Americans. Beginning with the ‘black codes’ established by President Johnson’s reconstruction plan, blacks were required to have a curfew as well as carry identification. Labor contracts established under Johnson’s Reconstruction even bound the ‘freedmen’ to their respective plantations. A few years later, another set of laws known as the ‘Jim Crow’ laws directly undermined the status of blacks by placing unfair restrictions on everything from voting rights all the way to the segregation of water fountains. Besides these restrictions, the blacks had to deal with the Democratic Party whose northern wing even denounced racial equality. As a result of democratic hostility and the Republican Party’s support of Black suffrage, freedmen greatly supported the Republican Party. As a result of the failure of Johnson’s Reconstruction, Congress proposed its own plan. The 14th amendment was one of the many things implemented under this plan. Among other things, this amendment forbade ex-Confederate leaders from holding political office, and gave freedmen their citizenship. The Southern rejection of this amendment, largely as a result of the actions of their former Confederate leaders then in state office, paved the way for the Reconstruction Act of 1867. This dismantled all Southern governments and established military control over the South. It guaranteed freedmen the right to vote under new state constitutions, and required the Southern states to ratify the 14th amendment. With the inclusion of African-American votes in southern elections, and with

Jackson as a President: Yesterday and Today

2002-03-03T13:00:00-05:00

The Andrew Jackson Administration, from 1829 to 1837, was very important in American history. A self-made man, Jackson exemplified republican virtues by restraining a centralized government and promoting the powers of the people. His administration left a lasting impact on American politics. With his extreme usage of the presidential veto, Jackson strengthened the executive branch and rendered it equal in power to the legislative branch. These Jacksonian ideals of decentralized government can still be seen in politics to this day. Jackson was the first American president to have come from the frontier society of the American West. He was a “one-generation aristocrat” (Hoftstedder, 58) whose ambitions were to be wealthy and receive military glory rather than have political power (although military glory is a good way to gain popular support and political power). Jackson gained ‘national hero’ status after his military victory at the Battle of New Orleans. This victory, along with wounds from his participation in the Revolutionary War, gave him the popular support he needed for a strong presidency. Although Jackson lost in his first attempt at the Presidency, he quickly learned from his mistakes and won the election of 1828 by 95 electoral votes (Norton, 359). During his administration Jackson was faced with many key issues, of which the Nullification crisis is an example. This was a crisis over the doctrine of nullification, which was being strongly pushed by South Carolina. According to this doctrine, the state had the right to nullify government legislature that was inconsistent with its own. This doctrine was not used until 1832 when a new tariff was imposed that would reduce some duties but retain high taxes on many imports. The south felt this tariff would make them pay for northern industrialism, and they did not want to succumb to the will of the North. Jackson was against this theory of Nullification because he was a strong supporter of the Union. He took action against this by publicly ‘nullifying nullification’ and by moving troops into South Carolina to help the federal marshals collect the unpaid duties. Finally a compromise tariff was passed in 1833 which increased the number of duty free items and reduced other duties. Jackson’s decisive actions in the Nullification crisis helped define the powers of the central government more clearly, they made it clear to the states that he would not suffer their tyranny, which might break up the Republic,

Why America will break from britain (point of view from time period)

2002-03-03T13:00:00-05:00

Wither America: Part of Empire, an independent state, or many small states? The history of American colonies and their present pattern of development mean that they are not simply overseas versions of England. For this reason it could be inferred that, in fifty years time they will no longer be a part of the British Empire. At the same time, their individual differences in economy and culture will make it difficult for the colonies to form a unified country on the American continent. Furthermore, the size of the American colonies themselves and their waterways and coastlines make it harder for them to be controlled by the British Empire Each region of America is different from regions of England, as well as from other regions within America. The climate and the land of America ranges from warm, semi-tropical and fertile in the south to mainly cold and rocky in the north. Economically, north and south are very different, and quite independent of each other, capable of their own production, whether it be in crops, fisheries or a trading industry. The large expanses of land in the south make it possible for everyone to have land, but soon the ‘possibility’ of land and the implementation of a ‘head right’ (more land to those with more indentured servants) has resulted in an internalized class system in the south. The small number of people who own the land, have become a sort of ruling class or elite; having the most power in American political bodies. This ‘feudal’ society in which a small number of people own the land is reflective of that of England. The fertile lands of the south promote its agricultural status, which brings in a large percentage of all southern revenue. This is drastically different from the north, which because of a lack of fertile land has a mainly commercial and fishing-based economy. The natural harbors and great expanse of forestland work well together in the north. The timber from the forests has brought on a thriving shipbuilding industry, while the natural harbors make it easier to build up ports for trade. It is odd to see a land of such great size and ability as America controlled by a smaller entity, but the rate of expansion of American industries, population and landmass will make it harder for Great Britain to maintain control. This control by Great Britain is, in the American viewpoint,

Colonial South Carolina Report (1750)

2002-02-15T13:00:00-05:00

George the Second, by the grace of God, of Great Britain, King, Defender of the Faith, I write to thee from the heart of South Carolina, Charleston to impart my knowledge of the region. My travels have been long and arduous. I arrived by way of a freight ship bearing finished goods for the colony on the twenty-eighth day of March, in the twenty-third year of thy reign. All that province, territory, or tract of ground, called South Carolina, lying and being within our dominions of America is well. The environmental conditions of South Carolina differ dramatically to that of England. The days are long, hot, humid, and at times damp. The people of the colony deserve admiration for dealing with such unfavorable weather. Occasionally, storms stemming from the Atlantic Ocean wreak havoc on the villages, upturning the soil and damaging the trees, but the majority of the days are bright with sunshine. During the spring and summer there is a combination of rain and scorching heat, whereas during the fall and winter it sometimes snows in the northern section of South Carolina, but throughout the rest of the region the climate remains moderately cool. The land is undulating and layered with an abundance of forestry. Yet, the terrain does not consist entirely of woodlands and smooth hills. The land is far from perfect. A large portion of the territory is made up of marshlands. The ground is somewhat blemished by the scattered swamplands. These quagmires are abode with vicious alligators and infested with countless mosquitoes. These bloodsucking mosquitoes in turn spread malaria amongst the populace. Despite the threat of malaria and fierce alligators, the economy thrives from the environment. South Carolina’s economy is based on agriculture. There are two staple crops: rice and indigo. The grimy swamps mentioned before provide the colony and thy gracious one with rice. Many fields are flooded in order to cultivate enough rice for England and the colony. Freshwater swamps are not the only means by which rice can be produced. A number of the chief rice fields are situated along the tidal rivers and inlets. Dikes and floodgates are used to regulate the amount of water supplied to the field according to whether it is low tide or high tide. The same process is reversed when water needs to be drained from the fields (Garraty, 51). People of Africa’s Rice Coast taught this technique

Analysis of an American Trial: The Salem Witch Trials

2002-02-12T13:00:00-05:00

The Salem Witch Trials all began on January 20, 1692, with nine-year-old Elizabeth “Betty” Parris and eleven-year-old Abigail Williams, daughter and niece of the village reverend Samuel Parris, beginning to exhibit strange behavior, such as blasphemous screaming, convulsive seizures, trance-like states and mysterious spells. Within a short period of time, several other Salem girls began to illustrate similar behavior; physicians resolved that the girls were under the control of Satan. Reverend Parris conducted prayer services and public fasting in hopes of relieving the evil forces that tormented them. In an effort to expose the “enchantress”, one man baked a “witch cake” made with rye bran and the urine of the ill girls. This counter-magic was meant to reveal the identities of the “witched” to the ailing girls. Pressured to identify the cause of their misfortune, the girls named three women, including Tituba, Samuel Parris’ slave, as witches. On February 29, warrants were dispatched for the arrests of Tituba, Sarah Good, and Sarah Osborne. Although Osborne and Good sustained guiltlessness, Tituba confessed to seeing Lucifer, who appeared to her “sometimes like a hog and sometimes like a great dog.” What’s more, Tituba certified that there was a collaboration of witches at work in Salem. On March 1, Magistrates John Hathorne and Jonathon Corwin investigated the three women in the courthouse in Salem Village. Tituba confessed to pursuing black magic. Over the next few weeks, other villagers came forward and testified that they too had been traumatized by or had seen strange phantoms of some of the village members. As the witch-hunting prolonged, charges were made toward many different people. Frequently unmasked were women whose behavior was somehow disturbing to the social order and formalities of the time. Some of the accused had records of unlawful pastimes, including witchery, but others were faithful churchgoers and people of high status in the society. From Mid-March to early April, Martha Corey, Rebecca Nurse, Elizabeth Proctor, and Sarah Cloyce were accused of witchcraft. Soon after Corey, Nurse, and Proctor were examined before Magistrates Hathorne, Corwin, Deputy Governor Thomas Danforth, and Captain Samuel Sewall. During this analysis, John Proctor was also jailed. Then Abigail Hobbs, Bridget Bishop, Giles Corey and Mary Warren were taken into account. The only one to confess was Hobbs. On April 22, Nehemiah Abbot, William and Deliverance Hobbs, Edward and Sara Bishop, Mary Easty, Mary Black, Sarah Wildes, and Mary English were examined before

September 11

2002-02-11T13:00:00-05:00

Today’s military has seen numerous changes that have taken place since Sept. 11 2001. Why is it before the 11th of September, the people that the military protects was basically badmouthing and putting us down? Why are they so proud to wave the American flag? Why wasn’t the flag flown high with pride before the 11th of September? It amazes the military because flags are often flown when terrorist’s acts take place and not when there is constitutional freedom. Why is it before the September 11th incident, the people that the military protects was basically badmouthing and putting us down? They sit there and say that we are not fit to fight and not able to protect them. But what would they know? They don’t wake up every morning and put on this uniform. Just because they can’t see us protecting them, doesn’t necessarily mean that we are not. Why do we have people over in Korea, Saudi Arabia, Kosovo, and etc? Are we just wasting our time and not protecting anything or anyone? Why do you think their butts are still free? Freedom doesn’t come free! People actually give their lives and freedom by giving up our constitutional rights. One thing that we learned with the September 11th is what kind of people we are protecting and how they think about the people in uniform. But as you can see we didn’t let that get in our way, it just pissed us off a little. We are still protecting the same people that dared badmouth us and talk us down. What does that say for the military? Why are they so proud to wave the American flag? They never waved it with pride before the September 11th. The only people who waved the American flag with pride was the Military. We stand through the hard times and the good times. As I travel today I can’t go far with out seeing a car or porch out fitted with the red, white, and blue. I must wonder how much time and thought was spent considering what the symbol of freedom really means and the responsibilities to the Americans. They finally realizing what the military does and stands for? To bad we know that after this all dies down the military will still be waving the American flag with pride and honor. But what can we say about the American people? What

Rise and decline of the KKK

2002-02-06T13:00:00-05:00

The white were taking the law into their own hands by killing any black that should be said guilty of any crime. They called this being lynched. They went to the jail that the black had been accused of and with the security being so lax took them and dragged him/her to the place that they probably hang him/her. A famous lynching was where a black went to a white women’s house to ask

Roosevelt - The West and the World

2002-01-29T13:00:00-05:00

America as a whole nation is fighting for the rights of the American people by attempting to preserve democracy. Franklin D Roosevelt began the lend-lease agreement in 1941. This allowed America to sell, lease or lend materials to a country that was considered important to the U.S. The understanding was that after the war was over the materials or it’s equivalent would be returned. Roosevelt’s “Four Freedoms” speech helped move the Lend-Lease bill through congress well. Shortly after its passage seven billion dollars in aid was on its way to the Atlantic. After this passage many American ships were attacked after Roosevelt ordered “Attack any enemy vessels within the U.S. defensive zone”. Roosevelt wanted equity for all. He believed in the ability of freedom of speech and to practice all religions freely. “Americans have a right to freedom from fear”. He thought that enduring peace cannot be bought at the cost of other people’s freedom. In order to have all this one must come together with all of its energies, resources and organizational skills to regain and maintain a free world. Roosevelt wanted Americans to live in

Early Colonial Settlements

2001-12-09T13:00:00-05:00

In the early seventeen hundreds, after the establishment of both New England and the Chesapeake, many similarities and differences arose between the two settlements. Some of the similarities and differences included such things as family life, economy, life expectancy, and society. In the Chesapeake area, the life expectancy and general healthiness of the settlers was dangerously low. Diseases like malaria, typhoid, and dysentery had a deadly effect on the inhabitants of the area, cutting 10 years off the life expectancy. Family life in the Chesapeake was also a problem. Women were very scarce which made a strong family life almost impossible. Unmarried pregnancies were everywhere and marriages did not usually last for very long due to a death of one of the partners. This lifestyle was greatly contrasted in the area of New England. New Englanders enjoyed clean water and moderate temperatures that slowed the spread of diseases among the people. The people of New England actually had a life expectancy of ten years more than that of a person living in England. Also, in New England the family life was very strong and important. Women usually wed by their twenties and had around ten children, with about eight of those that would survive. Another contrast in the lifestyle of the New Englanders to that of those in the Chesapeake was that women in the south would usually acquire land from their husbands after they died. In New England, however, the women would give up their property rights at marriage because widowhood was much less common and also because it did not promote the unity of marriage. One common point between the two civilizations was the very prominent class distinctions. In both areas settlers also fought to restructure these systems. Rebellions such as Bacon's 1676 rebellion in Virginia, and Leisler 1689 to 1691 rebellion in New York were due to the settler's unhappiness with the social class distinctions. Another similarity was that of relatively cheap and wages which almost tripled that of the English. Unity in New England was something that was not commonly found in the Chesapeake. New England's puritan ways easily molded this tightly knight colony. In the Chesapeake this was not the case. Farmers were more of loners who did not move or live in very close communities. New England grew in a more organized way, unlike the Chesapeake that was very spontaneous in its growth. New England also

Northern and Middle Colonies

2001-12-09T13:00:00-05:00

When the northern and middle colonies were founded, England had a strong hold over the colonies. They controlled development and the government, among other things. But as the colonies developed, they began to have an ever-growing sense of independence that was a threat to its English rulers. As a result of this England went through much trouble in constantly trying to regain full control of the colonies. Early in the Development of Massachusetts and the other New England colonies, the government of England had paid little attention to the colonies due to civil strife back at home. This neglect gave the colonies a somewhat independent feel. When Charles II came back to power in England, he decided to take a more active role in the English colonies of North America and stop the defiance of royal rule that was taking place. His first action was to give a charter to both Rhode Island and Connecticut, squatter settlements, which was a slap in the face to the colony of Massachusetts, which was, according to Charles II, ignoring royal rule. In 1684, as a show of power, Charles II revoked the charter of Massachusetts. The next action taken by England was the creation of the Dominion of New England. The primary purpose of the Domination of New England was too promote the English Navigation Laws which were not being followed. The Navigation Laws were meant to stop trade with non-English ruled countries. Another purpose of the Domination was to defend the colonies in case of attack by Native Americans in the area. The Domination of New England was very harsh in its rule. Headed by Sir Edmund Andros, he limited town meetings and put restrictions on such precious things as the courts, press, and schools. The Domination continued its rule, much to the dismay of the citizens, until the Glorious Revolution in 1688-1689. When the news of this revolution reached New England the Domination was immediately deteriorated. And Andros was sent back to England. Just when the New Englanders thought they had retained the freedom they previously had, when Massachusetts was made a royal colony and given a new charter. More English officials, judges, and clerks were sent to Massachusetts, many of who was not ft to hold the professions they were given. This greatly outraged the citizens of Massachusetts and further imposed their need for freedom. England's attempts at controlling their colonies in America

Native American Relations

2001-12-09T13:00:00-05:00

During the numerous years of colonization, the relationship between the English settlers and the Native Americans of the area was usually the same. Native Americans would initially consider the settlers to be allies, then as time passed, they would be engaged in wars with them in a struggle for control of the land. This process of friendship to enemies seemed to be the basic pattern in the majority of the colonies. When the English landed in Jamestown in 1607, the dominant tribe of the area was the Powhatan (which the English settlers named after the leader of the tribe, Powhatan). At first meeting, the Powhatan considered the settlers as allies, who may be able to aid them in their struggle for land and power over the other tribes in the area. These relations strained when starving settlers started to take food from the Native Americans. In 1610, any notion of alliance between the Powhatan and the Virginia settlers was immediately crushed when Lord De La Warr arrived with a declaration of war against all Indians in the Jamestown area. De La Warr used his "Irish Tactics" of burning houses and crops and taking prisoners to destroy the Native Americans in what was known as the First Anglo-Powhatan war. A peace treaty was signed, but lasted only eight years. The Powhatan killed 347 settlers, which lead to the Virginia Company to give orders for "a perpetual war without peace or truce." Although the Powhatan made one more attempt at destroying the Virginians, they were defeated again in the Second Anglo-Powhatan war. The peace treaty of 1646 eliminated all chance of the Powhatan coexisting with the Virginia settlers. The treaty also banished the Indians from their native lands, which lay the president for what was later known as a reservation. After this the number of Native Americans in Virginia dwindled to a low 10% of the population. In Carolina, the relationship between the settlers and the Native Americans started strongly as the Savannah Indians aided the settlers in their search of slaves for their plantations. They used the Manacled Indians as a major slave export, although it was greatly opposed by The Lords Proprietors in London. But in 1707 the Savannah Indians ended the alliance. They planed migrated to Maryland and Pennsylvania, which had better relationships between the Native Americans, but the Carolinas didn't like this idea so they attacked the Savannah Indians

Colonization

2001-12-09T13:00:00-05:00

During the early years of colonization and exploration in North America and Africa, many New World "collided" and brought to each other many new things, both good and bad. There were exchanges of ideas, products and crops that greatly advanced the cultures of all involved, but on the other hand, new diseases, and harsh treatment of one another were also present. Before the arrival of the Europeans to present day United States, the Native Americans treated their homeland with respect and with spiritual properties. Occasionally they burned sections of land in the wilderness for better hunting area, but other than that they provided no threat to its well being. This all changed when the European settlers arrived. The Europeans believed that humans had domination over the land. By building huge colonies, extensive road systems and for other technological advances, the colonizers greatly changed the face of our nation. Another impact on both the Native Americans and the Europeans was the sharing of native crops to each other. The Europeans brought back from the New World, tobacco, maize, beans, tomatoes, and potatoes, which provided food for the now greatly populated Europe. Other crops that were brought to Europe included blueberry, cranberry, papaya, wild rice, and pumpkin. In exchange for these great new crops the Europeans brought massive amounts of pigs, cattle, and horses. The horse highly effected the lives of the Native Americans by improving their hunting abilities. Another crop that did exceptionally well in the tropical climate of the Caribbean was the sugar cane brought over by Columbus. Not all things exchanged were beneficial, however. Europeans unknowingly brought with them many diseases that eventually plagues the Native Americans. Small pox, yellow fever, and malaria were some of the devastating diseases carried into the New World. Native Americans did also transfer the sexually transmitted disease of syphilis to the Europeans who had never experienced this before. Also, the ill treatment of the Native Americans by the land hungry Europeans virtually wiped out their civilization. Although at times they waged wars that would temporarily halt the European colonization, for the most part their voice in North America was forever muzzled. During the European exploration of Africa, similar events occurred. Europeans brought the crops of maize, manioc, and sweet potatoes, which they had received, from the Native Americans, to Africa. These crops fed the great increase of population that was occurring in Africa at the time.

Expansionism in the late 19th/ Early 20th century

2001-12-09T13:00:00-05:00

Expansionism in America during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century shared many similarities and differences to that of previous American expansionist ideals. In both cases of American expansionism, the Americans believed that we must expand our borders in order to keep the country running upright. Also, the Americans believed that the United States was the strongest of nations, and that they could take any land they pleased. This is shown in the "manifest destiny" of the 1840's and the "Darwinism" of the late 1800's and early 1900's. Apart from the similarities, there were also several differences that included the American attempt to stretch their empire across the seas and into other parts of the world. Throughout history, the United States had come off as a stubborn nation that would take what they wanted at any cost. This was prevalent in both cases of expansion as the Americans risked war and national safety for the sake of gaining land, or even merely for proving a point. During the early years of expansion, the Americans had pushed aside the Native Americans and whoever else inhabited the land they wanted. They believed that the land was rightfully theirs and that every one else was merely squatting on their territory. This idea was continued into the early twentieth century as the Americans looked to the oceans for new territories to their kingdom. This idea is greatly exemplified in document 'E', in which Senator Albert J. Beveridge delivers a speech to Congress, saying that, "…and thanksgiving to Almighty God that He has marked us as His chosen people, henceforth to lead in the regeneration of the world…" In contrary to America's earlier beliefs, however, the race for expansion became more of a global competition than that of controlling the surrounding lands. Other countries were quickly scooping the remaining uncontrolled territories up, and America felt that they needed to stake their clam in imperialism around the world. The cartoon presented in document "A" shows how all the European countries were picking away at the lands still open for taking. In addition to the sense of "catching up" with the other nations around the world. America also felt that they were more powerful than ever, with the addition of an improving navy, turning their attention to the seas for conquer. During the earlier attempts of expansion, America had virtually no navy, which made oversea conquest out of their

The Articles of Confederation

2001-12-09T13:00:00-05:00

The Articles of Confederation were the first basis of law and order in the newly formed United States. They built the first government and all the accompanying rules. The Articles of Confederation may have been a descent start, but it was not at all an effective one. One of the main problems with the Articles of Confederation was the poor management of money by the government. Because of the sour taste left in the American's mouths by British tariffs, they did not want to stress taxes very heavily. This proved to be a bad move on the part of the government. It was difficult to turn the people around to accept that the government did need money to keep the country stable, and the only resolution would be to tax goods. This reluctance is seen in document A, as the Rhode Island Assembly tells the government that their ways are unfair to the smaller states. The poor planing of the Articles of Confederation did not properly take into consideration all the factors necessary in taxation or collection of money, and this displeased many of the states. The government had no money to pay the militaries across the country, which was a great disappointment to the army, who felt they should be rewarded for their efforts against England. In document C, Delegate Joseph Jones writes to George Washington to tell him of the restlessness of the army over their inadequate compensation. Also, England's trade restrictions, and demands to collect debts obtained prior to the war were taking a toll on the economy of the struggling U.S. In document B it is clear that the market value of U.S. exports in England were dropping rapidly, as the population grew greater and greater every year. This meant more people with no place to sell or trade their goods. In addition to that, in document D, John Jay instructs the U.S. mister to England to relay America's great displeasure with their current actions. He tells him to demand that England's territories in North America be handed over to the U.S. He also asks that England lift the pre-war debt, for they are unfair. The United States also had a problem with obtaining the land around them; that they felt was rightfully theirs. Spain was very stubborn in letting the Americans use and settle past the Mississippi River. John Jay, in document F, tells congress how Diego de

Clay, Calhoun, Webster

2001-12-09T13:00:00-05:00

In 1816, soon after the end of the War of 1812, the British, who had failed to defeat the Americans in battle, attempted to shut down the newly formed American manufacturing business. They were sending over materials to the U.S. and extremely low prices in an effort to crate a stronghold over the U.S. These actions lead to the Tariff of 1816, which placed a 20-30% tax on all imported goods, in an attempt to protect U.S. industries. Strong debate arose over these issues in Congress, and strong leaders came about with those debates, in order to represent the feelings of the different areas in America. These three leaders were Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, and Daniel Webster. Webster was a representative from the North, a New Hampshire resident, who strongly opposed the Tariff of 1816. The view of the New England territory was for some protection, but not the entire amount outlined in the tariff. Their reasoning was that New England still maintained many of its reliance's on shipping and trade. Industry had not completely taken over in those areas, and because the tariff would limit trade in the New England ports, it would directly effect the New England economy. Webster took a strong stand in opposing this tariff for these very reasons, he in order to maintaining the well being of the northern states. Webster also stood against Clay's insistence for better transportation amongst the states. He went along with the New England belief that better roads would encourage migration towards the lands of the West, therefore dwindling the population of the Northern states. John Calhoun, a representative from South Carolina, also played a large roll in the congressional debates in the early 1800's. A fierce nationalist and former warhawk, he was much in favor of the Tariff of 1816. He believed that the South's future lay in the hands of manufacturing of cotton and other such products. With England trying to crush these industries, he saw the tariff as a helpful resource for his region. He later changed his position, opposing the tariff as he came to believe that the tariff only benefited the wealthy factory owners of the North, and did little to help the South. He looked out for the best interest of his state and the other states of the South. Henry Clay was another strong supporter of the Tariff of 1816. He was a western representative

Foreign Policy

2001-12-08T13:00:00-05:00

Foreign policy relates to international matters such as participation in NATO, international trade agreements, and maintaining peaceful relations with the Soviet Union and other nations. It is the principle and activities that constitute the role of the United States in relation to the rest of the world. National security is the primary goal of foreign policy. It also holds the security of United States citizens and properties abroad. With foreign policy the United States tries to maintain international stability. Also with foreign policy we are able to help other country's with economic assistance. The United States is able to provide many needy country's with food, supplies, and money. In fact, since World War II the United States has been able to provide over a hundred nations with three hundred billion dollars. The president is kind of like the head of foreign policy. He is the commander in cheif, he also heads the sea, land, and air forces of the united States. He is head of American foreign policy through the powers granted by the Constitution or acquired through tradition. He is chief diplomat and head of state, and being that he is able to represent the United States at hime and abroad. He can initiate treaties and agreements with foreign leaders. There are also many people and agencies that help the president with some of his decisions regarding foreign policy. The president does not do it all by himself. Foreign policy affects the people, The decisions on foreign policy are very complex. Foreign policy has an effect on international relations and on national security. We Americans are a blessed people in a blessed land. We exist in a time of unprecedented prosperity. Our farms feed ourselves and much of the world. The devastation of war has not touched our soil in 140 years. Millions every year risk their lives, in ways legal and illegal, to become part of the on-going experiment called the United States of America. Many die in the attempt; a few arrive with malice, and wreak havoc far disproportionate to their numbers before they are inevitably brought to ground; but most come with a hope and ambition that transcends color and language, and contribute to that constant national re-invention and re-invigoration that makes us so unique. At the end of one century and the beginning of another, we seem

9/11 - The Way we Were

2001-12-05T13:00:00-05:00

As you listen to the news, radio, or read a newspaper, you notice one thing in common after the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City--unity. New Yorkers have known to be "hard-ass'" and the rudest people you'll ever meet. Self-indulged in their own world, they knocked people down who stood between them and the next step ahead of them. We, as Americans, felt the effect of the destruction all over the nation, although it didn't happen in our hometown. Most people either knew someone, or knew someone who knew of someone that worked in the WTC building or were on those flights. Not until our safety was raped from us did we stop to unite, as a country, to help those in need. America is known as "the land of opportunities." Therefore, we are taught that to obtain our cultural goals, we must try to achieve them by almost any means necessary. America was a very self-absorbed country. For instance, look at the 80's, that era named "the era of greed." We're a very wealthy country; with wealth comes greed. We like to keep money in our pockets at all times--meaning we always want to have money. Everywhere you look now, there it is, the American flag: our symbol of pride. "One nation, under God with liberty and justice for all." We have become united as a nation. The American Red Cross has raised millions of dollars with the help of normal, everyday citizens. Celebrities have joined together and held telethons to raise millions of dollars also. The American flag has been in such high demands all over the country that they're almost impossible to find in stores. From car washes to simple donation buckets in supermarkets, everywhere you go people are contributing. Before the 9/11 attacks, one would never have doubts about who's on the same flight as you, or feeling compelled to wash your hands after touching the mail. We took for granted what most people don't have--freedom. The freedom to walk down the street without the fear of seeing a terrorist act and living without the fears of being on a national heighted security alert for more terrorist attacks. Hell, we're "the land of the free," or perhaps we took for granted that we really were. Because of these attacks, many people are having second thought about doing many everyday things. Flying is a huge phobia

Prohibiton

2001-11-21T13:00:00-05:00

What was Prohibition Introduced? In the 1920’s American politics was dominated by democracy and the idea of isolationism to keep America prosperous was incredibly apparent. However in 1919, President Wilson passed the 18th Amendment to the American Constitution prohibiting the manufacture, distribution and consumption of alcoholic drinks (any drink containing over 0.5% alcohol). Prohibition was not just a novel American idea, at the turn of the Twentieth Century, other countries were also experimenting with limiting or totally banning the production, distribution and consumption of alcoholic drinks the primary origins can be found all over the world. However, to find the origins for the American Prohibition we must look back to rural America in the Nineteenth Century. Wilson was also pressured into passing the Prohibition Act by the powerful temperance movement during the Great War, claiming that alcohol was unpatriotic as it was made by American’s from German descent. Even though he tried to veto the amendment, he was overturned by Congress and reluctantly passed the legislation. The law itself was amazingly ambitious as alcohol was the seventh largest industry in a nation which was ruled by “big business” and was an established and respected as part of the businesses which provided the wealth of America. Although the technical reason as to why the Prohibition Law was passed was because 66% of the Constitution voted for it, one of the main reasons why Prohibition happened was because of its mass support. By 1920, thirty-three out of forty-eight states had passed Prohibition laws, making approximately 63% of the total population of America ‘dry’. The main support for Prohibition came from moral crusaders in the South who were very anti-urbanisation like the American Society for the Promotion of Temperance in Boston and the Washington Temperance Society, whose groups grew in number between the 1820’s and the 1840’s. These groups campaigned against the effects of drinking liquor. Often this excessive drinking was blamed on the industrialisation of the rural areas in many counties as a result of social and economic change at this time. There were some protesters like the Irish Catholics who apparently were against prohibition because of their love of gin (!) as well as the congressmen of Massachusetts who famously said that, “the better the county the higher the alcohol content”. Still this was the beginning of the battle where it appeared that it was a case of “cornbelt over conveyor belt”. Supporters claimed that alcohol deprived

World Trade Center Tragdy

2001-11-19T13:00:00-05:00

At 8:45am

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke

2001-11-16T13:00:00-05:00

Established in 1968, the medical school at the University of California implemented a special admissions program to increase the representation of minorities in each entering class. There was one underlying problem with their special admissions program that was not addressed until 1973 when Allan Bakke submitted his application to the University of California. Their special admissions program worked by reserving sixteen percent of the entering class for minorities. The minorities entering through this special admissions program were processed and interviewed separately from the regular applicants. The grade point averages and standardized test scores from the special-admissions entrants were significantly lower than the grade point averages and standardized test scores of the regular entrants, including our dear friend Allan Bakke. In 1973 Allan Bakke applied to the medical school at the University of California. His application was rejected because it was turned in near the end of the year and by the time his application was up for consideration they were only accepting those who had scored 470 or better on their interview scores. Bakke had only scored a 468 out of the possible 500. When he learned that four of the special-admissions spots were left unfilled at the time his application was rejected he wrote a letter to Dr. George H. Lowrey, the associate dean and chairman of the admissions committee, stating how the special admissions system was unjust and prejudiced. When Bakke applied again in 1974 he was once again rejected. This time Bakke sued the University of California. His position was that the school had excluded him on the basis of his race and violated his rights under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, the California Constitution, and civil rights legislation. The trial court ruled in Bakke’s favor, however they did not order the University of California to admit him. Bakke appealed to the California Supreme Court where they ruled that the school’s admissions programs were unconstitutional and ordered the school to admit Bakke as a student. The school appealed this decision and brought it to the Supreme Court to argue their case on October 12th 1977. The Supreme Court upheld the California Supreme Court’s decision with a 5-4 vote. The Court also ruled that the special-admissions program constituted reverse discrimination and was therefore illegal. The Court also said that schools could continue to look at race as a factor when accepting applicants, but they could not set up a

Truman Doctrine

2001-11-13T13:00:00-05:00

"I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure." (Harry Truman mach 1947). This is part of the speech Harry S. Truman gave to congress on the behalf of small countries falling to the pressures of communism. The Truman Doctrine was a anti-communist foreign policy that would change of the world. Turkey and Greece were under a great threat by the Soviet-supported rebels seeking to topple the government and install communist power. This made the United States and especially Truman very nervous. This is why the Marshall Plan which is one of the direct influence to the Doctrine was thought up. This plan was designed to give aid to any european country damaged during WW2. It tremendously helped ravaged European nations such as Italy and France. By helping these countries the United States was economically forcing away communism. This was the way the United States had it all planned out. We weren't making the Communist very mad cause it was very indirect but later on this wouldn't be the case. The process by which the Truman Doctrine came about was a long and tedious one. After WW2 the US and Soviet Union were at the top of all world powers. Everything was pretty much equal such as military, economics, and nuclear power. The one thing that scared the US the most was the fact that the Soviets were greedy and wanted more and more land. This is where we began to see a huge threat to Greece, Turkey, and Iran. Because of all this on March 12, 1947 President Harry S. Truman gave a speech to congress that would later be call the Truman Doctrine. The Truman Doctrine would ask for a total of 400 million dollars for both Greece and Turkey (Freeland pg. 87). The money for Greece would be split between economic and military aid and for Turkey the aid was entirely for military purposes. The President had turned debate on two modest proposals into a vote of confidence on his administration's foreign policy and a test of American willingness to resist a threat defined to endanger the basic security and values of the American society (Pemberton pg. 92). By Truman doing this it almost put congress at a no win situation. Congress couldn't go against Truman cause this speech was nationally

Civics

2001-11-08T13:00:00-05:00

Civics is the study of citizenship and government. The word comes from the Latin word CIVIS, meaning "citizen." In ancient Rome, where the word was first used, only wealthy landowners were allowed to be citizens. As such, they enjoyed special privileges that the common people did not share. Today the word CITIZEN-a member of a community with a government and laws-applies to most people. Wealth and property are no longer requirements for citizenship. Being a citizen means much more than just living in a country. American citizens who live abroad are still citizens of the United States. Similarly, many foreigners living in this country remain citizens of

Jewish Involvement in Shaping American Immigration Policy, 1881- 1965: A Historical Review

2001-11-08T13:00:00-05:00

This paper discusses Jewish involvement in shaping United States immigration policy. In addition to a periodic interest in fostering the immigration of co- religionists as a result of anti- Semitic movements, Jews have an interest in opposing the establishment of ethnically and culturally homogeneous societies in which they reside as minorities. Jews have been at the forefront in supporting movements aimed at altering the ethnic status quo in the United States in favor of immigration of non- European peoples. These activities have involved leadership in Congress, organizing and funding anti- restrictionist groups composed of Jews and gentiles, and originating intellectual movements opposed to evolutionary and biological perspectives in the social sciences. Ethnic conflict is of obvious importance for understanding critical aspects of American history, and not only for understanding Black/ White ethnic conflict or the fate of Native Americans. Immigration policy is a paradigmatic example of conflict of interest between ethnic groups because immigration policy influences the future demographic composition of the nation. Ethnic groups unable to influence immigration policy in their own interests will eventually be displaced or reduced in relative numbers by groups able to accomplish this goal. This paper discusses ethnic conflict between Jews and gentiles in the area of immigration policy. Immigration policy is, however, only one aspect of conflicts of interest between Jews and gentiles in America. The skirmishes between Jews and the gentile power structure beginning in the late nineteenth century always had strong overtones of anti- Semitism. These battles involved issues of Jewish upward mobility, quotas on Jewish representation in elite schools beginning in the nineteenth century and peaking in the 1920s and 1930s, the anti- Communist crusades in the post- World War II era, as well as the very powerful concern with the cultural influences of the major media extending from Henry Ford’s writings in the 1920s to the Hollywood inquisitions of the McCarthy era and into the contemporary era. That anti- Semitism was involved in these issues can be seen from the fact that historians of Judaism (e. g., Sachar 1992, p. 620ff) feel compelled to include accounts of these events as important to the history of Jews in America, by the anti- Semitic pronouncements of many of the gentile participants, and by the self- conscious understanding of Jewish participants and observers. The Jewish involvement in influencing immigration policy in the United States is especially noteworthy as an aspect of ethnic

The Economic Boom 1920s

2001-10-29T13:00:00-04:00

After the First World War America was a completely different country. The twenties was a very unusual time period in American History. The twenties were a time of fun and partying. There are many reasons why it was called the Roaring Twenties. Most of the American people were living a great life and were able to afford luxury items, even though this didn’t apply to every one many believed that it was excellent and exciting a time of great hopes. In the twenties, industry took a very big step. It nearly doubled. Not only did industry grow so did science, fads, laws, beliefs, arts, social lives changed, sports and the various different news from around the globe. The twenties were a jam-packed decade. The work week had dropped from 60 to 48 hours. For the first time, the Americans considered play as important as work. The weekend family outing and vacation had become things workers expected it. Huge numbers of people had radios went to the movies and owned a car. Jazz was also introduced in the 20's At this time women were needed in society and men began to accept them. The car and train industry was the largest industry there was. The assembly line made mass production possible, and the industry boomed. "The Economic Boom". America was now a very powerful envy of many countries. America had High production and low unemployment Henry Ford's assembly line in Detroit was the largest one in the country. When Ford first started making cars, the only car he made was a black Model-T. Almost everybody in the United States had a car. Three-out-of-four families owned one or more cars. With the assembly line they made a lot more cars in one day than they did before. Instead of paying for the cars with cash, people could now use credit to purchase items. Since most families didn't have the money, they would buy the car with credit and pay off the debt later. Over 23 million cars were made. Other scientific things that were invented at the time was freezing to preserve foods, car companies for example Ford and Chrysler, dry roll film and portable cameras. There were many reasons for the boom they were: Mass production: Factories around the USA could use electricity and set up assembly lines and make objects quickly. The cars were made identical to make them easier to make and so they are cheaper. America was being

Stock Market Crash 1929

2001-10-22T14:00:00-04:00

The Great Depression was the worst economic slump ever in U.S. history, and one, which spread to virtually the entire industrialized world. The depression began in late 1929 and lasted for about a decade. Many factors played a role in bringing about the depression; however, the main cause for the Great Depression was the combination of the greatly unequal distribution of wealth throughout the 1920's, and the extensive stock market speculation that took place during the latter part that same decade. The misdistribution of wealth in the 1920's existed on many levels. Money was distributed disparately between the rich and the middle-class, between industry and agriculture within the United States, and between the U.S. and Europe. This imbalance of wealth created an unstable economy. The excessive speculation in the late 1920's kept the stock market artificially high, but eventually lead to large market crashes. These market crashes, combined with the misdistribution of wealth, caused the American economy to capsize. The "roaring twenties" was an era when our country prospered tremendously. The nation's total realized income rose from $74.3 billion in 1923 to $89 billion in 1929. However, the rewards of the "Coolidge Prosperity" of the 1920's were not shared evenly among all Americans. According to a study done by the Brookings Institute, in 1929 the top 0.1% of Americans had a combined income equal to the bottom 42%. That same top 0.1% of Americans in 1929 controlled 34% of all savings, while 80% of Americans had no savings at all. Automotive industry mogul Henry Ford provides a striking example of the unequal distribution of wealth between the rich and the middle-class. Henry Ford reported a personal income of $14 million in the same year that the average personal income was $750. By present day standards, where the average yearly income in the U.S. is around $18,500, Mr. Ford would be earning over $345 million a year! This misdistribution of income between the rich and the middle class grew throughout the 1920's. While the disposable income rose 9% from 1920 to 1929, those with income within the top 1% enjoyed a stupendous 75% increase in per capita disposable income. A major reason for this large and growing gap between the rich and the working-class people was the increased manufacturing output throughout this period. From 1923-1929 the average output per worker increased 32% in manufacturing. During that same period of time average wages

Traffic and Urban Congestion: 1955-1970

2001-10-19T14:00:00-04:00

In 1960, Great Britain still had no urban freeways. But with the ownership of private cars becoming ever more common, the problem of congestion in British cities was unavoidable. Investigating the possibilities of freeways as alleviators of big-city traffic jams, the government-sponsored Buchanan Report was pessimistic: ... the study shows the very formidable potential build-up of traffic as vehicular ownership and usage increase to the maximum. The accommodation of the full potential is almost certainly beyond any practical possibility of being realized. There is thus no escaping the need to consider to what extent and by what means the full potential is to be curtailed.1. In the decades preceding this study, Americans faced much the same problem with transportation in their cities. But the American plan for dealing with urban congestion in the automobile age was very different. In 1954, President Eisenhower suggested that "metropolitan area congestion" be "solved" by "a grand plan for a properly articulated highway system." In 1956, the House Committee on Public Works urged "drastic steps," warning that otherwise "traffic jams will soon stagnate our growing economy."2. Confronting the same problem--urban traffic congestion--the British and the American governments responded with radically different solutions. In Britain, congestion in cities was understood to mean an excess of automobiles entering cities. The problem, to British planners, was to reduce relative reliance on the private car in order to allow better movement of traffic. But in the U.S., planners interpreted congestion as a sign that roads were inadequate and in need of improvement. In the face of traffic jams, the British tended to say, "too many cars!" while the Americans would say, "insufficient roads!" U.S. urban transportation policy was shaped by this tendency, from its origins in the 1940s until the mid 1960s. This essay makes a twin argument. First, the way in which U.S. urban transportation policy was formulated in the 1940s and 1950s precluded the British solution. Regardless of the relative merits of the British and American approaches, discouraging the use of the automobile was not an option American policy makers could consider. The American political culture could consider large scale domestic projects only with the cooperation of the private sector, and in the U.S. this meant largely automotive interest groups. The second point is that American urban transportation policy retreated from this position in the 1960s. By the 1970s U.S. policy was much more like Great Britain's. In 1975, official

The New Deal - changed the course of government and politics more by accident than by design

2001-10-19T14:00:00-04:00

The New Deal period has generally - but not unanimously - been seen as a turning point in American politics, with the states relinquishing much of their autonomy, the President acquiring new authority and importance, and the role of government in citizens’ lives increasing. The extent to which this was planned by the architect of the New Deal, Franklin D. Roosevelt, has been greatly contested, however. Yet, while it is instructive to note the limitations of Roosevelt’s leadership, there is not much sense in the claims that the New Deal was haphazard, a jumble of expedient and populist schemes, or as W. Williams has put it, “undirected”. FDR had a clear overarching vision of what he wanted to do to America, and was prepared to drive through the structural changes required to achieve this vision. It is worth examining how the New Deal period represented a significant departure from US government and politics up to then. From the start of Roosevelt’s period in office in 1932, there was a widespread sense that things were going to change. In Washington there was excitement in the air, as the first Hundred Days brought a torrent of new initiatives from the White House. The contrast with Herbert Hoover’s term could not have been more striking. By 1934, E.K. Lindley had already written about The Roosevelt Revolution: First Phase. Hoover, meanwhile, denounced what he saw as an attempt to “undermine and destroy the American system” and “crack the timbers of the constitution.” In retrospect, it was only a “half-way revolution”, as W. Leuchtenburg has written. Radicals have been left with a sense of disappointment at the “might have beens”, in P. Conkin’s words. But Roosevelt never intended to overthrow the constitution, nor did he wish for an end to capitalism and individualism. He harboured the American Dream just like the millions of people who sent him to the White House a record four times. That, indeed, was precisely why they loved him so much: because the American Dream had turned sour in the Great Depression, and they trusted that he would be able to find a way back towards it. As Europe gave in to totalitarianism, the New Deal set out to show that democratic reform represented a viable alternative. Roosevelt’s enthusiasm for his role as head of state established a new convention that the President would lead from the front, and in his First Inaugural he

The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798

2001-10-09T14:00:00-04:00

The debate of the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 revealed bitter controversies on a number of issues. Most of the controversies had, however, arose even before these acts; as far back as the penning of the Constitution. The writers of the Constitution knew that as time proceeded, the needs and demands of the nation and of the people would change, leading to controversy. By not assigning specific powers to specific groups/parties, governments, they unintentionally created a vast problem in the years to come. Subsequently following the ratification of the constitution, two leading groups formed; the Federalists and the Antifederalists, each believing in exact opposite interpretations of the Constitution. The Federalist Party was headed by the newly appointed Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, who thought the interpretation of the Constitution should be very loose. Hamilton believed the Constitution encompassed powers other than those authorized or enumerated. These hidden powers, claimed Hamilton, were implied powers. Hamilton stated it would be essential that the federal government should gain control over any later added account to the nation. Significantly, Hamilton aspired to put these implied powers to use in requisition to build a powerful and domineering central government. In opposition to Hamilton?s Federalist Party, Jefferson who believed in strict interpretation of the Constitution. Jefferson anticipated that everything should be done through strict evaluation and a laws should abide by what is written. Although Jefferson was not a Federalist, he was also not an Antifederalist; he was a Democratic-Republican, a composite of the two. Jefferson vindicated that all powers not enumerated by the Constitution are obtained by the States. Issues between the two groups lead to the imperative question: should a strong central government be established or should each individual state have control? The attacks of the succeeding debate and public scurrility led to the Sedition Act. This act prohibited intermingling and conspiracy against the America government and the correspondence of scandalous and malicious writings against the government or its officials, under penalty of a fine or imprisonment. Succeeding the Sedition Act, the Republicans turned to the states arguing that federal government had strode past their powers; the powers delegated to it by the states through the Constitution. Therefore the states acquired the right to repeal the act. Another issue was what to do about the problem of immigration that rapidly increased after the Revolution. President Washington at the time had addressed this issue, but nine

The Articles of Confederation

2001-10-08T14:00:00-04:00

During the Revolutionary period, the United States and Britain had many conflicts. Between 1763-1776, there were issues among these two countries. Between 1780-1789, there were issues about the federal government and the states under the Articles of Confederation. Two of these issues happened to be the foreign affairs between Britain and the United States, and the economy of the federal government. Subsequently following the French and Indian War, which happened to be where the British fought for the American colonies, Britain was in great need to pay its debts. Holding the war against the colonies, Britain decided to tax the colonies to pay for their large debt. Not being treated as members of the British Empire, the colonists were angered at the thought of being a source for Britain?s revenue. Acting in protest to what the colonies considered to be unjust laws, the colonists resisted attempts to be taxed, claiming as long as they weren?t allowed fair representation in the English Parliament, they would not pay. In 1650, a series of laws called the Navigation Acts were issued for the American colonies; although they did not come into full effect until after the French and Indian War. These laws prohibited the trade of certain items, which made it difficult for merchants who relied on French, Spanish, and other foreign countries for business. These restrictions angered the merchants, seeing as they were not allowed to make specific products in the colonies any longer, Heavy tariffs made trade nearly impossible and led the colonists to believe Britain was purposely doing this to hurt the economy of the colonists. England enacted laws to create trouble with trade between the colonies and other countries. In 1764, the Sugar Act was issued; this law taxed sugar, textiles, and other goods. One year following this the Stamp Act was put into effect, taxing all legal documents, newspapers, and playing cards. Shortly after, the Townshend Acts came into place, taxing lead, glass, iron, and manufactured goods within the colonies. The colonists became infuriated at these new laws stating they were too heavy and were levied without their direct consent. Britain thought it only necessary to place troops in America for the safety and protection of their colonies. They thought since they were doing such a great favor for the colonies, that it was only fair, and that the colonists would not mind providing the supplies needed to tend and care for

Expansionist Tension

2001-10-08T14:00:00-04:00

From 1800 to 1850 territorial expansion tore the United States apart. Territorial expansion itself was not a debated issue. Spurred by the concept of Manifest Destiny, almost everyone believed that America should extend from sea to shining sea and maybe even farther. But it was the issue of the expansion of slavery into the new territories that pitted the North against the South and split our nation apart. The first real crisis over territorial expansion took place in 1819-1821 over the admission of the state of Missouri. The proposed state of Missouri was the first (beside Louisiana itself) to be carved out of the Louisiana Purchase. It lay out of the jurisdiction of the Northwest Ordinance, which prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territories, and had a long tradition of slavery. Therefore, in 1817 Missouri applied to the Union as a slave state. The extension of slavery so far north and the threat of further expansion of slavery into all new territories of the U.S. created havoc in Congress. In February 1819, Congressman James Tallmadge, from New York, proposed an amendment that would prohibit any new slaves to enter the state and provided that all slave children born after the date of admission would be set free at the age of twenty-five. Tallmadge’s gradual emancipation proviso received almost unanimous opposition from Southern Congressmen. The amendment twice passed the North dominated House of Representatives, only to be turned down by the balanced Senate. In December 1819, Maine applied for statehood as a free state. In the end a compromise was reached where Maine would enter the Union as a free state, Missouri would enter the Union as a slave state without restrictions, but in the remaining Louisiana territory slavery would be prohibited north of 36o30’ (the Mason-Dixon Line). This is now known as the Missouri Compromise. The Missouri Compromise is commonly thought of the beginning of American Sectionalism, although signs were visible long before 1819. The Missouri controversy alerted the South to the need for political unity in order to maintain the “peculiar institution” of slavery and alerted the whole country to the political problems inherent to westward expansion. The next jolt to national unity was over the admission of Texas into the Union. Texas had petitioned for admission as early as 1836, and the ensuing arguments in Congress over upsetting the balance between free and slave states delayed its admission into the

The American Dream

2001-09-25T14:00:00-04:00

Americans have always had a universal dream ranging from marriage to freedom, and of course, money. Some Americans pursue them more diligently than others, while the others just sit and dream. Holy matrimony, through the thick and thin, in sickness and in health; it seems most all Americans desire this. An eternal life partner of the opposite sex is something hard fought for. Since we were children, we Americans all seem to have dreamed of growing up and having a family, and this is something that will never change. Blessed, glorious freedom, something very few other countries have, especially this good. Freedom is exactly what birthed this amazing country, and so many Americans take it for granted. We all

Panama Canal

2001-09-18T14:00:00-04:00

How did we, humans, accomplish these great tasks? Such deeds are the Great Wall of China and the pyramids of Egypt. But one of these magnificent accomplishments is more significant than others: the Panama Canal. Encouraged by the French, the US built a vital link for the entire world. Despite previous failures by preceding organizations, the US was able to survive. This structure remains today as one of the greatest engineering marvels of the modern world. The Canal goes as far back as the 16th century after Europeans realizing the riches of South America and Asia. Charles I of Spain ordered the first survey of a proposed canal route through the Isthmus of Panama. The survey was finished in 1529 but wars in Europe simply put the project on hold. Then, Emperor Napoleon III of France toyed with the idea of a canal in French land across the sea but never thought much more of it. Various maps were drawn between 1850 and 1875 and proved that only 2 routes were possible: one across Panama and the other across Nicaragua. In 1876, an international company was mustered but failed. Three years later, Ferdinand Marie de Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal across Egypt, organized a French company. Lesseps' succession at Suez gave him confidence that a canal at Panama would be no different. A lease on building the canal was sold to France by Colombia from 1878 to 1903. In the beginning, Lesseps had hoped to muster 400 billion francs but received 30 million francs, only 8% of what he had wished for. Work for the French company started in 1882. From that point on, the company and the canal were plagued by troubles, from money to diseases. France gave up on the canal project and began a search for a buyer. Eventually, France found a friend in the US. America sent Lieutenant Menocal to survey Nicaragua for a canal site. But, the government lost funding, the first and last of America's mistakes on the canal project. President McKinley would have probably secured funds for a Nicaraguan canal, had not a bullet taken his life. Theodore Roosevelt decided to begin anew and a friendship with the Republic of Panama. Philippe Bunau-Varilla, an American ambassador, wrote the Hay-Bunau-Varilla treaty, which was ratified by the new Panamanian Government in 1903 and by the American Senate in early 1904. This treaty granted exclusive canal rights to the US

Significance of social and economic change in the USA between 1898-1921

2001-09-12T14:00:00-04:00

Sweeping social and economic reforms that occur in any country at any time are always very significant. In relation to the United States of America (USA) during the period of 1898-1921, it is even more so. This period of time saw remarkable changes occurring both inside the USA, and in relation to the USA and the outside world as it became a global force. After the Spanish-American War, led by President McKinley, American ideologies, basically ignorant, capitalist and isolationist at heart, seemed to shift and do a 180 degree turn. This can be said as being signified by the accession of the political dogma of Progressivism, advocated by the next President Theodore Roosevelt, who believed in a 'Dirigisme' style of government. With Roosevelt came swift economical and business reforms, the Roosevelt coined 'Square Deal' is an example of the reforms he implemented, and the advent of the 'muckrakers', with their campaigns against malpractice in the corporate world and big business monopolistic power. William Howard Taft, the successor of Roosevelt, tried to follow this road with his attempts at reforming tariff protection, but inner party disagreements, and a split, in the Republican camp denied him the chance to do so. As the world, and America, edged closer to the First World War, we see that the United States had significantly revolutionised both socially and economically, especially assisted with the Democrat Woodrow Wilson as President, who reformed the country more than any other. However, as the Great War progressed and after its completion, we see a drastic reversal. A new US stepped out of the war, one where its people wore blinkers for thinking caps. As the era of Communist take-over fears, suffrage for women, prohibition and the 'roaring 20's' neared, isolationism, restricted immigration, and social, civil, and racial unrest had come to the forefront of American society's priorities. This period ended with the introduction of 'laissez-faire' economics, a swift turn-around from usual government methods used in the last 20 years. American society had once again done a 180-degree turn, back to 'normalcy', under the guidance of President Warren Harding. This original form of control and regulation in the country was a way in which the people repudiated all the years of hard work done by the progressives and others in the past in their attempts to make the USA a more friendly, safe, prosperous and free place to live in. Permeating

Bay Of Pigs

2001-09-11T14:00:00-04:00

The story of the failed invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs, which is located on the south coast of Cuba about 97 miles southeast of Havanna, was one of mismanagement, poor judgment, and stupidity (“Bay of Pigs” 378). The blame for the failed invasion falls directly on the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) and a young president by the name of John F. Kennedy. The whole intention of the invasion was to assault communist Cuba and put an end to Fidel Castro. Ironically, thirty-nine years after the Bay of Pigs, Fidel Castro is still in power. First, it is necessary to look at why the invasion happened and then why it did not work. From the end of World War II until the mid-eighties, most Americans could agree that communism was the enemy. Communism wanted to destroy our way of life and corrupt the freest country in the world. Communism is an economic system in which one person or a group of people are in control. The main purpose of communism is to make the social and economic status of all individuals the same. It abolishes the inequalities in possession of property and distributes wealth equally to all. The main problem with this is that one person who is very wealthy can be stripped of most of his wealth so that another person can have more material goods and be his equal. The main reason for the Bay of Pigs attack on Cuba was the change to communism. On January 1, 1959, Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista fled the country for the safety of the Dominican Republic (Goode, Stephen 75). Fidel Castro and his guerrilla warriors overthrew the old government dictated by Batista. During the next couple of weeks, Castro established a new government and on February 16, he was officially declared premier (Finkelstein, Norman H. 127). The United States accepted this new regime as a relief from the harsh, corrupt, and unpopular government of Batista. Soon after everything settled down, Castro and his men made a rapid move to change their political course. He announced his transformation to Marxism-Leninism and avowed his friendship with the Soviet Union (Goode, Stephen 75). These events upset the United States and there were concerns about Castro becoming too powerful. One reason was the friendship with the Soviet Union because Cuba was receiving armed forces to expand and improve its army. Cuba received 30,000 tons

Sitting Bull exile to Canada

2001-09-07T14:00:00-04:00

Many things influenced Sitting Bull’s decision to cross the border into Canada. After Custer’s defeat at Little Bighorn, Sitting Bull had to live life in fear. He fought on the defensive for years. Sitting Bull and his followers fled from the onslaught of American howitzers. He then was able to find sanctuary in the White Grandmother’s Country, north of the international boundary. “Most of the band drifted back in the next few years; Sitting Bull himself was to return in 1881 to end his exile” (Andrist 298)). They faced unknown obstacles, and challenges, all for a chance to live the way they wanted to. When times were bad they looked to the Canadians for assistance. When they could not help Sitting Bull struggle ended and asylum. Canada was no longer an option for Sitting Bulls starving people. For Sitting Bull and his people “the winter of 1876-77 was a winter of despair. “Soldiers occupied the hunting grounds and kept the war going even when the snow fell and the temperature plunged”(Utley 174). Sitting Bulls options for the survival his people were being held in the hands of the soldiers surrounding his winter encampment. Who could at any time “ burst into their village, shoot down the people, and destroy their homes and food supplies”(Utley 174). Sitting Bull disliked the alternative of an unconditional surrender, which was out of the question. This surrender would have cost Sitting Bull and his people their guns, and horses. This was unreasonable for people who relied on these valuable tools in almost every aspect in their lives. In April of 1877 the Miniconjoous, Sans Arcs, Hunkpaps, and others of equal prominence conviened a council at Beaver Creek. Spotted Eagle and Sitting Bull would make speeches advocating continuing the war against the white man. They would eventually realize them necessity to act in the best interest of the people. Sitting Bull stood firm in his way of life, as a hunter. Around this time Crazy Horse made his decision to surrender. On May 6, Crazy horse surrendered at the Red Cloud agency in Robinson Nebraska. The group which consisted of 889 people, surrendered "12,00 ponies and 117 arms"(Utley182). Sitting Bull faced new uncertainty in Canada. He had traveled to this country before "following Buffalo or seeking Slotas to trade with" (Utley184). He also knew from experience the contrast between the Grandmother (Canada) and the Great Father of

America's Self-Interest

2001-09-07T14:00:00-04:00

America had remained mostly an isolated country until the late 1800’s when the United States was faced with the opportunity of building a colonial empire. By 1890 the United States, like Europe, had began to expand its influence onto islands in the Caribbean and South Pacific areas. They entered in other countries’ affairs claiming that it served the interests of all peoples and were motivated by Idealism. In reality, the United States was mostly after its own self-interest. The Spanish-American War, the United States’ Open Door policy, and the control over the Panama Canal zone make it unclear if the United States was pursuing its own self-interest or was inspired by Idealism. In the Spanish-American War the United States was supposedly fighting for Cuba’s independence from Spain. Though Idealism might have been present in the United States’ reasons for war, there is evidence of America’s self-interests in the war. The United States did fight to defend the Cubans but it also fought to profit out of the war. When the war ended and the United States won, it offered Cuba self-government only if they agreed to the terms of the Teller Amendment which states, “Cuba should allow the United States the right to buy or lease naval stations”. Though there were advantages for the United States in the Spanish-American War, America fought mostly for the welfare of Cuba. A good example of America’s pursuit for their own advantage in foreign affairs was the Open Door policy. China was expected to become a sphere of influence for European nations. The United States had a small percent of trade with China and was hungry for more. They issued the Open Door policy with the goal of preserving equal trading opportunities in China for all foreign nations. The United States was obviously only concerned for their own self-interest rather than the interest other countries trading with China. The United States claimed that they would build the Panama Canal for the advantage of Panama. Roosevelt said that he advanced “the needs of collective civilization” by speeding up the building of an interocean canal. The Canal was built by the United States for the use of the United States. The United States needed a shorter route from one ocean to the other for its warships. This was a perfect example of how America was interested only in itself. The United States Argued that American foreign policy was inspired by

Salem Witch Hunts and McCarthy Hearings - Contrast

2001-08-11T14:00:00-04:00

Does history repeat itself? Lots of people think that the McCarthy hearings of the 1950s are a repeat of history from the Salem witch-hunts of 1692. All of the accusations were false, and also fictitious. The main reason people were blamed was so that ones who were condemning would receive their own personal gain. Both parties (McCarthy and the girls in Salem) accused people to make themselves look better to others and gain respect. They both gained respect from others, which was something they did not have a lot of, especially the girls of Salem, Massachusetts. In 1692, people blamed of being witches were used as scapegoats for society’s problems, and then again in 1950, those blamed of being communists were used as scapegoats for society’s problems. In the long run, both cases were worthless except for the lessons that it may teach those who look back at the awful experiences. Many people were killed in the diminutive town of Salem and the ones who weren’t killed had their reputations forever lowered. Everyone who was charged by Joseph McCarthy had his or her own reputation diminished also. All of this would have never happened if the people, who were involved, would have only opened their blinded eyes and saw the truth, which lied right in front of their faces. One night in the minute New England town of Salem, Massachusetts, three young girls and a slave from Barbados were caught dancing naked in the forest around an immense kettle. This wasn’t something that girls normally did in the 1600s and was also socially unacceptable. These girls, Abigail Williams, Betty Parris, Mercy Lewis, and Tituba were immediately accused of being witches just because they were dancing. To get themselves off the hook, the girls pointed their fingers at other women in the town of practicing witchcraft. They indicted some women because their names popped into their heads, but one particular girl, Abigail Williams, accused a woman named Elizabeth Proctor because she had lust for her husband, John Proctor. Abigail Williams and John Proctor had already had an affair. However, unlike Abigail, John wanted to leave that horrible mistake in the past and forget about her. Abigail also did not like other women in Salem because they called her names. They knew of her lust for

Submarines in the Revolutionary and Civil Wars

2001-06-23T14:00:00-04:00

The Trident Submarine houses twenty-four nuclear warheads with each having a range of 4,600 miles over land. If a nuclear war were to break out between the Soviet Union and the United States, virtually every major city could be destroyed in a matter of hours. The origin of these major players in modern day warfare lies in the Revolutionary and Civil Wars. A Dutchman named Cornelus Van Drebbel, made the very first submarine in 1652, to fight the mighty Spanish ship called the Rotterdam Boat. It carried about twelve oarsmen and even had an air circulator. It never saw any action. In the American Revolutionary War, a manned underwater craft named the American Turtle (or the “water-machine”) was used against the British Navy. David Brushnell designed this ingenious machine in 1771. The submarine was a one manned, egg-shaped vessel which was propelled by hand-operated screw-like devices. It was bottom-heavy in order for it to remain upright. The operator would plant a submersible mine that could be triggered by a simple clockwork mechanism. He could paddle away after he attached the magazine of gunpowder onto the enemy ship. The operator could stay under for about thirty minutes The American Turtle was ready for her initial mission on September 6, 1776, just after midnight in the New York Harbor. The operator, Ezra Lee, failed in his attempt to sink the HMS Eagle because he failed to secure the screw of the gunpowder magazine to the ship. The Turtle made two more attempts to sink enemy ships but they both failed. The end of the American Turtle is unknown. Some think she was accidentally sunk, dismantled, or destroyed. The Turtle was the very first submarine to be used in the art of war. In October of 1805 the two-manned submarine invented by Robert Fulton, the Nautilus, sunk a ship in a demonstration for the British government. The detonation device was a mine, which was tugged by long cables that hit the boat after the submarine had passed under it. The timing was wrong for the event because England had just finished another war. The ship was ignored. The importance of the Nautilus was the use of compressed air for oxygen and the use of rudders for vertical and horizontal alignment while underwater. The significance of these first two fully working submarines in the world was that they played a major role in future developments of

The Causes of the Great Depression

2001-06-01T14:00:00-04:00

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution early in the nineteenth century the United States ad experienced recessions or panics at least every twenty years. But none was as severe or lasted as long as the Great Depression. Only as the economy shifted toward a war mobilization in the late 1930s did the grip of the depression finally ease. Stock prices had been rising steadily since 1921, but in 1928 and 1929 they surged forward, with the average price of stocks rising over 40 percent. The stock market was totally unregulated. Margin buying in particular proceeded at a feverish pace as customers borrowed up to 75 percent of the purchase price of stocks. That easy credit lured more speculators and less creditworthy investors into the stock market. The Federal Reserve board warned member banks not to lend money for stock speculation because if prices dropped, many investors would not be able to pay back their debts. No one listened. The stock market began sliding in early September, but people ignored the warning. Then on “black Thursday” (October 24, 1929) and again on “black Tuesday” (October 29, 1929) the ball dropped. More than 28 million shares changed hands in frantic trading. Overextended investors, suddenly finding themselves in heavily in debt, began selling their stocks. Many found that no one would buy anything at any price. Overnight, stock values fell from a peak value of 87 billion dollars to 55 billion dollars. The crash was felt far beyond the trading floors. Speculators who borrowed money from the banks to buy their stocks could not repay the loans because they could not sell stocks. This caused many banks to fail. Since bank deposits were uninsured before the 1930s depositors’ their money, which in many cases was all that many people had. The stock market crash intensified the course of the Great Depression in many ways. Besides wiping out the savings of thousands, it hurt commercial banks that had invested heavily in corporate stocks. It also caused a loss of confidence in the market prolonging the depression. The downturn began slowly and almost unnoticeably. After 1927, consumer spending declined and housing construction slowed. Inventories piled up, and in1928 and 1929 manufacturers began to cut back on production and lay off workers. Reduced income and buying power in turn reinforced the downturn. By the summer of 1929 the economy was clearly in a recession. Although the stock

Pearl Harbor and how it came about

2001-05-15T14:00:00-04:00

By the year 1941, WWII was in full effect. Germany seemed to be the victor, gaining control of France and Poland as well as successfully bombing England. Many people believe that Germany would have indeed won the war if not for the intervention of the United States. Because of the horror Americans had witnessed in WWI, the United States did not originally want to get involved in the conflict. In the early morning of December 7th, 1941 all that changed when the Japanese air fleet scattered in the Pacific Ocean bombed Pearl Harbor. In September of 1940 Japan entered in alliance with Germany and Italy. The Japanese were in need of natural resources found in Southeast Asian countries newly conquered by Germany. Around the same time in the United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt wanted to halt German and Japanese expansion but was urged by other government officials to leave the situation as it was. Japan feared America’s reaction to their plans to seize Southeast Asia, yet did not let that fear get in their way. Japan completed their control of Indochina by seizing the southern half. The American government answered back by placing an embargo on oil shipments heading for Japan. The Japanese viewed this as an act of war, for they knew their military and industrial forces would not last long with out oil. The United States tried to resolve their differences with Japan, throughout 1941. Demands on each side were quite simple. The Japanese wanted the embargo lifted and permission to attempt an attack on China. The U.S. exclaimed they would only lift the embargo if Japan ceased its aggression towards China. The two powers refused to compromise and a war seemed inevitable. America realized Japan would not budge and strategically place military forces in the Pacific Ocean in preparation for a pending war. In fact, the most crucial element of American defense was the U.S. Pacific Fleet. With war looming the Pacific Fleet was moved to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on April 2nd , 1940. Pearl Harbor seemed to be the perfect place to rest the fleet. Situated between the Marshall Islands, where the Japanese fleet gathered and the west coast of America. The fleet wasn’t supposed to stay in the harbor very long yet because of events in Europe, President Roosevelt felt if the fleet was left in the harbor it would diminish the possibility of a Japanese attack

The Emancipation Proclamation

2001-04-23T14:00:00-04:00

The Emancipation Proclamation led to the end of slavery, and is one of the most controversial documents in American history. Human slavery was the focus of political conflict in the United States from the 1830s to the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861. Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate for presidency in 1860, personally abhorred slavery and was pledged to prevent it from spreading to western territories. At the same time he believed that the Constitution did not allow federal government to prohibit slavery in states where it already existed. The election of Lincoln led to the secession of eleven slave-holding states and the beginning of the civil war. The states feared Lincoln would restrict their right to do as they chose about the question of black and white, so they went about creating the Confederate South. Four slave-holding states remained in the Union however; Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland and Delaware. During the first part of the war, abolitionists and some military leaders urged Lincoln to issue a proclamation freeing the slaves. They argued that such a policy would benefit the North because slaves were contributing greatly to the Confederate war effort. By doing most of the South’s farming and factory work, slaves made whites available for the Confederate army. But still Lincoln feared that him freeing the slaves would divide the North, he believed that the four slave-holding states would secede if he adopted such a policy, and he saw them as vital to the survival of the Union By 1862 large numbers of slaves were escaping and seeking refuge with Union armies. Lincoln recognized that the extraordinary pressure of the war was gradually destroying the institution of slavery, even without legal emancipation. In July 1862 Lincoln read a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation to his cabinet. One of his ministers suggested that the President wait to issue it until after the Union victory, so that it would not sound like the last desperate act of a loosing government. Lincoln agreed and waited for his generals to win the war. The battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862, was the bloodiest single day of the war. Robert E. Lee’s Confederate army retreated after the battle, allowing Union general George B. McClellan to claim victory. Five days later, on September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. It stated that if the rebelling states did not return to the Union by January 1, 1863, he would declare

American Imperialism

2001-03-25T14:00:00-04:00

American Imperialism has been a part of United States history ever since the American Revolution. Imperialism is practice by which powerful nations or people seek to expand and maintain control or influence over weaker nations or peoples. Throughout the years there has been many instances where the Americans have taken over other people countries, almost every time we go into we have taken over a new piece of land. The Americas first taste of imperialism came about five hundred years ago when Columbus came to America. We fought the pleasant inhabitants and then took over their land making them slaves. Americans over the years have been known to become almost selfish, no matter how much we have we will never be happy until we control the free world. "The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 defined United States foreign policy in the Americas for the rest of the 19th century and beyond. It declared that the United States had an interest in the Western Hemisphere and the European powers must not meddle in the affairs of any developing nations there. The United States was a young nation in 1823 and did not really have to powers to back up the Monroe Doctrine. However, the policy was used to justify the sending of the U.S. troops into Mexico in 1866 (to intimidate the French) and the purchased of Alaska in 1867". Another case of Imperialism was the United States industrial economy was growing so fast that they were producing more goods than they could consume. The over abundance of industrial goods led the United States to look for new markets. Next came the Spanish-American War, which started with the Americans not liked the way that the Spaniards were treated the Cubans. After this an U.S. battleship (Maine) was docked outside of Havana (Cuba's Capital) and all of a sudden exploded from under the sea. At the time no one actually knew the real reason why the ship exploded but many Americans thought that it was the Spaniards. 266 officers and men were lost in the explosion. William McKinley (U.S. President 1897-1901) went to congress and asked for permission to send troops to help stop the fighting in Cuba. After a couple of days he was given permission which shortly led to war. Spain declared war on the United States on April 24th followed by an U.S. declaration of war on the 25th. This

Cold War Foreign Policy

2001-03-25T14:00:00-04:00

Introduction “Their [Russia’s and America‘s] starting-point is different, and their courses are not the same; yet each of them seems marked by the will of Heaven to sway the destinies of half the globe,” Alexis de Torqueville, late 19th century. De Torqueville’s prophecy came true by the 1940s when the two super powers, the United States of America and the Soviet Union, had come head to head, swaying the “destinies of half the globe” and more. (de Torqueville, chapter 18) The United States had recently participated in the second World War resulting in an Allied and American victory. Europe, however, was devastated, economically, politically, and socially. “The United States [stood] at this time at the pinnacle of world power. It [was] a solemn moment for American democracy,” former Britain Prime Minister Winston Churchill stated in a speech delivered at Westminster College in 1946. (Churchill, page 1) At that time, American and Russian tensions had evolved into a full-throttle push into the Cold War. The Cold War refers to the tensions that arose between Russia and America that became a strategic and political struggle that developed after World War II. It lasted for 35 years and it was the battle that determined the fate of democracy and communism. The never-back down attitudes pushed into a stand-off between the two super powers. (Cold War: The Cause, par 1) To intensify to the hostility, the Soviet Union had taken a policy that shutting out any other nations from the Union’s internal affairs metaphorically known as the Iron Curtain. What emerged was a war that “entailed much greater activism and a correspondingly larger commitment of resources to foreign policy than the United States had previously undertaken in peacetime.” (Ford, page 1) The United States was asked to form policies in to deal with its doppelganger's atomic power and communistic government. The Cold War significantly changed the way foreign policy is administered today. The United States was forced to make strategic plans to help other countries regain economic stability, contain communism, and not end up in a ruinous global nuclear war. The war was what pushed America from the Monroe Doctrine’s limited jurisdiction to Truman's National Security Council's reponse to the endangering communsim and warfare with NSC 68, Containment's and the Marshall Plan’s economic intervention in volatile nations, and Dulles' "brinkmanship." Three policies and two ideologies formed the backbone to what became the outline for foreign policy

The Alien and Seditions Act

2001-03-19T13:00:00-04:00

The debate over the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 revealed bitter controversies on a number of issues that had been developing since the penning of the Constitution. The writers of the document knew that over time the needs of the nation and its people would change, and therefore provided for its amendment. But by not expressly delegating powers to specific organizations, whether the federal government, state governments, or the people themselves, they inadvertently created a major problem in the years to follow. The two parties, Federalists and Republicans interpreted the Constitution in terms of how this interpretation would fit their very different interests. The result of these differences were the Alien and Sedition Acts, followed closely by the secretly formed Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Passed in early 1798, the Acts laid down a number of harsh restrictions on foreigners. They were enacted by a Congress dominated by the Federalist Party and signed by President John Adams during a crisis with France. Though the acts were allegedly in response to the hostile actions of the French Revolutionary government on the seas and in the councils of diplomacy, they were designed to destroy Thomas Jefferson's Republican party, which had openly expressed its sympathies for the French Revolutionaries. Depending on recent immigrants from Europe for much of their voting strength, the Republicans were adversely affected by the Naturalization Act. It postponed citizenship, and thus voting privileges until the completion of 14, rather than 5, years of residence. It also empowered the president to arrest and deport aliens considered dangerous. The Alien Enemies Act provided for the deportation of subjects of foreign powers at war with the United States. The Sedition Act made it illegal to publish certain statements against the government, oppose lawful acts of the Congress of the United States and aid a foreign power in plotting against the United States; all considered seditious acts; hence the name of the law. The contents of the Alien Act were either ignored or welcomed by most Americans. It was accepted that people from foreign countries were enemies of the nation and, as their leaders had taught them, impressed upon then undemocratic principles. There was also a sense of isolation. most Americans had difficulty believing themselves to be even a part of the United States; most never left the states in which they lived and considered themselves more Virginians or Alabamians than Americans. As

The 1960s

2001-03-17T13:00:00-04:00

It may have been a decade of a myriad of effulgent paintings and intrepid space excursions, but for most people, resplendent canvases don’t come near the cranium when someone mentions the 1960s. So just what do we associate the decade with? The most intriguing part of our prior erudition: hippies, flower power, peace, love, drugs, and Woodstock! All of the preceding are the very essence of the ‘60s in America; all of them had a distinct impact on the world. Presumably the most prominent aspect of the ‘60s was the evolution of the youthful generation into a powerful strong-minded group of people known as the hippies. Around the late ‘60s, there was a copious amount of young men and women who were just reaching their late teen years, re-evaluating their sentiment on important issues. But just what was a hippie? Hippies were mostly young people who were often characterized by long hair and flowing skirts. They had very confident convictions, particularly in regard to the Vietnam War. Because this new generation possessed a blatant loathing for the affect of Vietnam on the country, they rebelled against everything the war was about. This resulted in a shared conception of love, peace, and happiness. They held protests and anti-war love-ins promoting their ant-violence views, unity, and, also, drugs. Previously unmentioned, hippies were also druggies. Dr., Timothy Leary was a drug guru who was much loved for his preaching. He said things such as “Turn on, tune in, and drop out” and used new pronouns like “She” and “hir” to promote gender equality. He brought about a new philosophy that conceived that your state of consciousness is reflected in your environment. Leary had four exercises to a life of expanded intelligence: 1) Look at yourself in the mirror, change your manner of dress and your behavior so that you float like a god, not shuffle like a robot 2) Look around your home and throw out everything that is not “tuned in” to your highest vision 3) Make your body a temple and your home a shrine 4) You are a god, live like one! As prevalent as hippies were, it astounds many people to hear that there was a subdivision of the group. Yippies, as they were called, were much like other hippies, only more extreme. The yippies were New Left radicals with a no-holds barred approach contesting every custom of society. Most

The Best Candidate for the Presidency

2001-03-08T13:00:00-05:00

As this election 2000 is coming, each candidate is working very hard. They are doing debates, electoral campaigns all over the country in order to get more popular votes and therefore get the electoral votes they need to be the next president of the United States. In all of the inquiries that the media did in most of the states, Al Gore seems to be the favorite one, because he knows what he is doing, he has enough experience to rule our country, and he also has very interesting positions in the issues that he proposed to the American people. Albert Gore, Jr., was born in Washington D.C on March 31, 1948. His mother was Mrs. Pauline Lafon Gore and his father was Albert Gore, Sr. As Governor Bush, Al Gore has a father who was in the political business; his father was a Democratic congressman and senator from Tennessee. Gore graduated from Harvard University in 1969 with a Bachelor’s degree in government. While he was studying in Harvard, he was linked with drugs like marijuana that made his father mad at him, and he almost lost everything he got, so he decided to quit and never do that again. Although Gore opposed U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, he accepted induction into the United States Army and served as a military reporter. Upon his return home, and until 1976, he worked as an investigative reporter and editorial writer for the “The Tennessean” a Nashville newspaper. Gore married Mary Elizabeth “Tipper” Aitcheson on May 19, 1976 and they have four children. Gore was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives several times and he also was elected to the U.S. Senate and as member of Congress, he earned a reputation as an authority on arms and environmental issues. After that, Gore ran unsuccessfully for the democratic presidential nomination 1988. In 1992 Al Gore was the running mate of Bill Clinton, also in this year he wrote “Earth in Balance” which is a book that talks about environmental issues. Clinton defeated the incumbent Republican President, George Bush, and Al Gore became Vice-President in 1993, finally they were reelected in 1996 and in 1999 Gore announced his candidacy for President in the 2000 election. Al Gore has stated his position on a number of issues; some of his position more important are in education, health care, taxes, and Social Security. In education, he said

Bush's Address To Congress - Environment, Charity, and Education

2001-03-05T13:00:00-05:00

After this year’s chaotic election, the country is divided and furious. It is up to our new president to heal the wounds. To do so, it is obvious he must alter his original plans a bit to make the entire nation, both liberals and conservatives, content. Naturally, the first chance he had to express his plans to congress and the rest of the country was immensely important, as it could have been a uniting or dividing step. Luckily, it appeared as though Bush was trying his best to compromise on many issues. I believe his address was a step in a consolidating direction. Three issues of utmost importance to the American people are the status of the environment, charity and the poor, and the education of their children. What was Bush’s stance on these three issues, and how will his attitude towards them affect America? Bush said that he aimed to clean up toxic wastes and fully fund the Land and Water Conservation Fund. He also proposed that 4.9 billion dollars will go to cleaning and maintaining our national parks. Clearly, he wishes to do a great deal of good for the environment, although helping the environment to such a high extent is not a traditional Republican view. (The Democrats did not have anything to say about Bush’s environmental program in their response; they focused on his tax cut plan.) However, if he desires to unite America, helping the environment is a great way to do so. I cannot think of anyone who would turn down the idea of having cleaner water and fresher air. I think the condition of the environment could very well improve during the four years Bush is in office. The Land and Water Conservation Fund will know best what to do with the massive amount of money they will be granted. I am concerned about the protection of animals though- Bush has expressed a desire to clean the environment, but only those areas that pertain to Americans and their living conditions. It would be wonderful to be rid of toxic brown fields, but what about the depletion of the ozone layer? What about rapidly diminishing species of animals? Will Bush attempt to help these areas of the environment, or is he simply planning on excluding them? I hope he is, and that he neglected to mention them in his address to congress simply because he didn’t

Alexis de Tocqueville's Democracy in America

2001-02-25T13:00:00-05:00

Alexis de Tocqueville's visit to the United States in the early part of the nineteenth century prompted his work Democracy in America, in which he expressed the ability to make democracy work. Throughout his travels Tocqueville noted that private interest and personal gain motivated the actions of most Americans, which in turn cultivated a strong sense of individualism. Tocqueville believed that this individualism would soon "sap the virtue of public life" (395) and create a despotism of selfishness. This growth of despotism would be created by citizens becoming too individualistic, and therefore not bothering to fulfill their civic duties or exercise their freedom. Tocqueville feared that the political order of America would soon become aimed at the satisfaction of individual needs, rather than the greater good of society. Alexis de Tocqueville viewed participation in public affairs, the growth of associations and newspapers, the principle of self-interest properly understood, and religion as the only means by which American democracy could combat the effects of individualism. Given that despots have every interest in keeping people isolated, the individualism resulting from equality makes despotism a great danger to equality. "Despotism… sees in the separation among men the surest guarantee of its continuance, and it usually makes every effort to keep them separate" (399). Exercising freedom through participation in public affairs is therefore extremely vital because it gives people a personal interest in thinking about others in society. Local self-governments are important because they draw people together, and it is therefore more likely that they will exercise their liberty. Tocqueville states that "as soon as a man begins to treat of public affairs in public, he begins to perceive that he is not so independent of his fellow men as he had first imagined, and that in order to obtain their support he must often lend them his cooperation" (400). When people act together they frequently form dependencies on one another, especially when they are working for the good of the entire community. Another means by which Tocqueville believes it is possible to contest individualism is to form associations and write newspapers. He believes that like local governments, associations help people to realize their dependence on their fellow citizens and take interest in public affairs. It is crucial to have institutions and civic duties which force people to look beyond their own interests and think about the problems of the community. "As soon as several of

Amendment Seven

2001-02-16T13:00:00-05:00

The 7th Amendment is very unusual. It speaks to trials at Common Law (civil trials), rather than criminal trials. It states that in trials where the value of the potential award is greater than twenty dollars, the accused has the right to demand that they be tried by a jury; and that no facts tried by a jury shall be reconsidered in any court in the United States other than by the rules of common law. What does this mean? It means that in any civil case where the potential award is more than twenty (20) dollars, the person

Was the War of 1812 Pointless?

2001-02-06T13:00:00-05:00

The War of 1812 proved to be the most serious challenge to face the United States since the country’s birth. This ‘Second war of Independence’ perhaps changed American history as we know it though. This essay will discuss the causes for this war assessing whether there actually were valid reasons for the United States and Britain going to war or whether the whole 1812 war was just born out of “pointless aggression” The war of 1812 was a very unnecessary war. It broke out just as one of its chief causes (The Orders in Council) was removed and its greatest battle (New Orleans) was fought just after peace was signed. The war was unnecessary from a British point of view but for the Americans it was inescapable. The Royal Navy had kidnapped 3,800 American sailors and pressed them into service. The Orders In Council had deprived the United States of a profitable trade with France and can be seen as having ruthlessly subordinated American economic interests to the political interests of the British Empire. American farmers also blamed the orders, perhaps unfairly, for a fall in agricultural prices that produced a depression in the West in the years immediately before the war. On the frontier it was universally believed that Indian restlessness war stirred up by British agents although really American oppression has to be seen as a big cause of this too. America’s war with Britain seemed inevitable although the Americans did everything they decently could to avoid it, although there seemed to be endless provocation by Britain, for example in 1807 when a British frigate, the leopard opened fire on an American frigate the Chesapeake. The choice before America, Jefferson the former president and his successor Madison agreed was war or submission – to fight or to undo one of the main achievements of the revolution and accept total defeat in international affairs to England. As John Quincy Adams put it “It was not a matter of dollars and cents, no alternative was left but war or the abandonment of our right as an independent nation” The offences committed against the United States were the major provocation’s for the war, reasons other then vindication can be regarded as rationalisation. There was an obvious anger for what British had done to America and many Americans merely wanted revenge but the war was fought for much more then that. The radical expansionism and

Uncle Tom's Cabin

2001-01-04T13:00:00-05:00

Uncle Tom's Cabin is one of the most famous and popular pieces of Civil War literature. It was drawn from selected pieces of a real life memoir done by Harriet Beecher Stowe. Uncle Tom's Cabin was a book that drew many people into the fight over the institution of slavery. Northerners hailed the book saying it exposed the truth, while southern slaveholders and plantation owners claimed that it had many falsehoods in it. President Lincoln, when he met Stowe called her, "the little lady who started this big war." Originally planned for a series of short essays for the National Era (an abolitionist newspaper) in 1851-1852, Stowe gathered so much information, that is was too large for newspaper print, and was published originally by the Boston publishing company Jewett. Immediately it became a hot seller, with northerners and southerners alike. It sold more copies than any other piece of literature, with the exception of the Bible and soon Stowe was touring the United States and Europe to speak against slavery. Many argued that there were false reports in what she wrote because the slave owners were portrayed as heartless devilish men, and the slaves were portrayed as their victims. These were mostly Southern slave owners who believed they treated their slaves well and the slaves were happy. To respond to this, Stowe published A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin a year later, in 1853, to provide documentation of the truth upon which her novel is based. Uncle Tom's Cabin tells a story of adversity in the struggle for freedom, a look into human cruelty as well as human compassion, and one man's loyalty to those he is indentured to. It is set in a period just before the Civil War; during the time when the black people of America were not citizens, but property and had no rights. In the south during this time, the blacks were forced to work hard labor on plantations and were required to live in small dorms outside of their owner's homes. However, the novel is more than just a narrative of slaves, but of human emotion rising up in the face of adversity. It is a story of the fight for freedom, and an account of the history of America. The author brings out the humanity in the slaves, and describes the great injustices that took place during the time. The characters Uncle Tom, Ophelia, and

Who Killed JFK?

2000-12-10T13:00:00-05:00

Before we started the section on John F. Kennedy in our class I would have said that Lee Harvey Oswald assassinated him without a question in my mind. After reviewing videos on this subject in class I am now not so sure. Was there really a conspiracy to kill Kennedy or as a nation do we over analyze something that was an open and shut case? After reviewing the information in class I do not think Oswald was the lone assassin. I do not even think that Oswald was the assassin. The most convincing evidence that I received was the video showed in class where there was a man who was a specialist in stripping away layers in photographs down to tiny particles. He had a picture of the shooting of JFK and stripped the layers away. The picture showed tiny particles coming off the back of JFK’s head. Seeing this made me come to the conclusion that JFK was not shot from behind but from the front therefore Oswald could not of shot JFK because the book depository was positioned behind the presidents vehicle. I think that the death of JFK was pinned on Oswald because the police were pressured to find the assassin of JFK. Oswald was an easy target because he openly held communist beliefs during a time when the cold war and anti-communist feelings were at its highest. I believe that Jack Ruby truly shot Oswald so that Mrs. Kennedy would not have to relive that day when Oswald went to trial. People do strange things when caught up in the moment and the whole country was turned upside down over the assassination of President Kennedy. People thought it was suspicious that Jack Ruby was able to get so close to Oswald. He was able to do this because he was known by many of the officers, frequented the station and therefore was not perceived as a threat. I think the attitude changed towards the government after the assassination because the government did not run the investigation efficiently. They should of hired a group outside the governments CIA and FBI branches to run the investigation so that they could get an objective view instead of the view that the FBI and CIA knew their superiors wanted. I believe that we are more cynical in 2000 than 1963. We as a country have been through a lot

"American Tragedy: The Kennedy Assassination"

2000-12-02T13:00:00-05:00

Where were you November 22, 1963? Any and every American old enough to mourn, to feel sorrow remember where they were and what they were doing when they received the news that President John F. Kennedy had been murdered. My mother was only three and she remembers the day. She was in the living room of her childhood home when a weeping neighbor called my Grandmother and broke the news. The telephone call was the beginning of a chain reaction that sent the entire house into uncontrollable sobbing. The event had that effect on the entire nation. Men and women, Democrats and Republicans, adults and children mourned the loss of their fallen leader. President Johnson, the Warren Commission, and every fascinated watcher-on in the world would closely scrutinize that day and the following events. The facts of the day are still hotly contested even now. Politicians have made their careers on the case. Conspiracy theorists have had a field day writing books, accusing anyone and everyone of planing the assassination. This paper’s purpose is to inform you on the known facts of the event, including the reason for President Kennedy’s visit, the parade through down-town Dallas, and the emergency trip to the hospital. The Warren Commission’s report to the President will be summarized and many conspiracy theories will be established. President and Mrs. Kennedy arrived in Dallas at 11:40AM CST on Friday, November 22, 1963. The couple had been in San Antonio, the first leg of a two day trip through the state, where they met with Vice-president Johnson and Texas Governor Connally. The Texas trip was planned in hopes of reviving the President’s popularity in Texas after it was hurt during the election of 1960. Until midmorning, cloudy skies had threatened to cancel the motorcade-style parade that was planned for the day. The motorcade would travel from Love Field, where the President’s plane had landed, through Dallas on a previously publicized route to the Trade Mart where a luncheon in honor of the President had been planned, (The Warren Commission, pg. 2). The motorcade consisted of the president’s car, followed by a car designate the “Presidential follow-up” which carried secret service members. Behind that was another open roofed car carrying Vice-president Lyndon Johnson and Texas Governor Connally and their wives. Following the vice-president’s car was another follow-up car and several cars and buses with dignitaries and press representatives. The motorcade followed its

Jeffersonian & Jacksonian Democracy

2000-11-28T13:00:00-05:00

Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy are the same in just about every regard. Their views and goals as presidents are the same. Both are in favor of the common man and feel that it is the common people who should have the biggest influence on government, not the wealthy aristocrats. They also support states rights and feel that the federal government should not get involved with the states affairs. Both men’s actions clearly show that the common man does not include minorities. Both Jackson’s and Jefferson’s actions and words are very similar and support the same beliefs. Thomas Jefferson was a strong supporter and spokesman for the common man and self-government. He strongly believed that the purpose of American government is to look after and support the common interests of the people. He was against anything that he felt would hurt the common man such as the Bank of the U.S. and big government. Jefferson believed the Bank was hurting the common man and became a damaging monopoly. “It would swallow up all the delegated powers [of the states], and reduce the whole to one power...”-Jefferson referring to the Bank. He was strongly against big government and felt it would oppress the common man. “I am not a friend of a very energetic government...it places the governors indeed more at their ease, at the expense of the people.” Jefferson was also a strong supporter of the Bill of Rights, which protected the rights of the people. “A bill of rights is what the people are entitled to...” He felt the Bill of Rights would clearly state and protect people‘s rights, “freedom of religion, freedom of the press, protection against standing armies, restriction of monopolies, the eternal and unremitting force of the habeas corpus laws, and trial by jury....” It was based on Jefferson's suggestions that Madison proposed a Bill of Rights. Jefferson did everything he could to help the common man. Andrew Jackson was undoubtedly a man of the people. He was the first president to be chosen by the people and his background was not that of a typical president. He was not born into a rich family. Jackson’s favored the general public rather than the wealthy. His election shifted the balance of power from the wealthy East Coast, to farmers and small businesspeople in the west. Jackson vetoed more bills than all previous presidents did in an attempt to help the

The Victorian Age

2000-11-21T13:00:00-05:00

The United States during the second half of the 1800s was in a stage called "The Victorian Age." The basic style of this time was actually borrowed from the English or to be more exact Queen Victoria hence the name Victorian Age. During this period the high class citizens would dress in their finest clothing on an everyday basis. The middle class people would dress as nice as possible but not nearly as showy as the high class. The lower class people would dress in basically rags. Also, during this time sex was not a topic often discussed in the public, usually if you were caught there was a pretty good punishment for that. The way I see it is that The Victorian Age was a strong time for the U.S., but it's probably a good thing that it's not that way anymore. If it were still that way today there would continuous struggle for the lower class people to get an advantage. When you think about it our society is sort of like that now, but

Women's Rights

2000-11-19T13:00:00-05:00

Women had it difficult in the mid-1800s to early 1900s. There was a difference in the treatment of men and women then. Married women were legally dead in the eyes of the law. Women were not even allowed to vote until August 1920. They were not allowed to enter professions such as medicine or law. There were no chances of women getting an education then because no college or university would accept a female with only a few exceptions. Women were not allowed to participate in the affairs of the church. They thought they were totally dependent on men. Then the first Women's Rights Convention was held on July nineteenth and twentieth in 1848. The convention was assembled as planned, and over the two days of discussion, the Declaration of Sentiments and twelve resolutions received agreement and endorsement, one by one, with a few amendments. The only resolution that did not pass unanimously was the call for women's authorization. The thought that women should be allowed to vote in elections was impossible to some. At the convention, debate over the woman's vote was the main concern. Women's Rights Conventions were held on a regular basis from 1850 until the start of the Civil War. Some drew such large crowds that people had to be turned away for lack of meeting space. The women's rights movement of the late nineteenth century went on to address the wide range of issues spelled out at the Seneca Falls Convention. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and women like Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, and Sojourner Truth, who were pioneer theorists, traveled the country lecturing and organizing for the next forty years. Winning the right to vote was the key issue, since the vote would provide the means to accomplish the other amendments. The campaign for woman's right to vote ran across so much continuous opposition that it took 72 years for the women and their male supporters to win. They finally received the right to vote in 1920. There were some very important women involved in the Women's Right Movement. Esther Morris, who was the first woman to hold a judicial position and who led the first successful state campaign for woman's right to vote in 1869. Abigail Scott Duniway was the leader of the successful fight in the early 1900s. Ida B. Wells-Barnett and Mary Church Terrell were arrangers of thousands of African-American women who worked for the

If the White House Walls Could Talk

2000-11-18T13:00:00-05:00

They paint over me so many times as if they could cover up my memories. My memories cannot be covered up or erased, just as

The Cuban Missile Crisis: Eyeball to Eyeball

2000-11-16T13:00:00-05:00

Eyeball to Eyeball: America, Cuba and The Soviet Union America and The Soviets again using other countries for their own warfare Excitement was high for Cuba, when Fidel Castro overthrew the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in January 1959. With a heady mixture of nationalism and left – wing ideologies US became very cautious for its southern comrades Central and Southern America and perhaps herself. When Castro took over Cuba, the US lost valuable investments in the sugar and tobacco crops of Cuba. Fearing the spread of communism into Americas’ backyard the US Government imposed a strict economic blockade hoping to starve Castro into US policies. In desperation Castro turned to the soviets for balance of powers to weigh up the balance of communism ideologies. In February 1960, Castro signed a trade pact with the Soviets, which eventually led to close diplomatic relations. At this time the US Government became more worried that a communist superpower had ventured so close to her borders. By authority of Eisenhower, Cuban Exiles that were in the US at the time were given aid. At the same time the CIA began to train selected groups of the exiles to re – enter their homeland and over - throw Castro’s Government. When Kennedy was sworn into parliament in 1961 he took over the proceedings with hesitation for his states security. He advised a plan to invade Cuba once again after Eisenhower’s two other invasions failed. This invasion was known well as the Bay of Pigs. In April Kennedy received reports that the invasion failed which boosted Castro’s prestige and embarrassed Kennedy of his new presidency. When the Bay of Bigs disastrously ended it built up confidence for the soviets and Castro and lowered Kennedy into a worriment of what’s to happen next. Early 1962 Khrushchev was convinced of Kennedy’s weakness after the capture of Gary Powers and that they had ceased to carry out U-2 reconnaissance missions over the Soviet Union for the capture. A while after the Vienna Summit the Soviets formed yet another policy with Cuba of ‘Brinkmanship’ seeing how far the Americans could be pushed before reacting. Although this strategy was a dangerous one the Soviets were thinking of the opportunities that could arise from this. One was the advantage of an east – West balance that the Soviets could start to infiltrate the Americas with their ideologies. The second and most important advantage was the stationing of nuclear missiles close to the

Colonial Rule

2000-11-06T13:00:00-05:00

The English colonies set up forms of representative government consisting of an appointed governor and a legislature, a law making body elected by voters. Having an appointed governor and a legislature sometimes led to tensions. The governor and the assembly frequently disagreed over taxes, the selection of other goverment officials, and defense of the colony. Economic poicies also caused tensions between England and the colonies. In the 1660s the English Parliament's Navigation Acts mad it illegal for colonial

The Assassination of President McKinley

2000-10-28T14:00:00-04:00

In Cleveland, Ohio, on May 6, Emma Goldman, “The Anarchist,” gave a speech. She outlined the principles and methods of anarchy in this beautiful speech, where she said, “We … desire complete individual liberty, and this can never be obtained as long as there is an existing government.” Toward the end of her speech, Goldman said that most Anarchists were not violent; she added that she believed in their motives, since some people are unable to act without force. All the while, police were ready to arrest her if she said anything too radical. The entire time, Leon Czolgosz was the most supportive of anyone in the audience (Berkeley 1). On September 5, 1901, Leon Czolgosz entered the Pan-American exposition. He blended in with the crowd, and surveyed the security, grounds layout, and crowds. An enormous crowd was gathered to see President McKinley, and Leon pushed his way through the masses until he was close enough to hear the speech. Leon pushed his way through the crowd, determined to get close enough to shoot the President. A security guard blocked his chance, and the President was escorted away (Assassin Arrived… 1). The next day, Leon and McKinley returned to the exposition. In the afternoon, the President began shaking hands with people lined up by the Temple door. Near the end of this line, Leon waited patiently. His hand was wrapped in a handkerchief, which he held close to his chest, but no one seemed to notice. When the President reached him, Leon extended his left hand, pressed it against the President’s chest, and shot him twice with the gun he held under his handkerchief (Secret Service Guard…1). He did not have a chance to fire again, because a black man - next in line to shake the President’s hand - had already tackled him. In seconds, more than a dozen men had tackled him and were beating him up. At the same time, Secret Service officers and exposition police seized Leon and tore the gun from his hands. US Artillery soldiers beat Leon after this. McKinley, in the middle of this panic, is reported to have said, “Go easy on him, boys” (Assassination of… 2). When news of the attack spread, the thousands in attendance began a riot; some shoved their way into the temple, trying to see if the rumor was true, while others demanded that Leon be hanged. At the police

What Price Freedom?

2000-10-10T14:00:00-04:00

No country allows as much personal freedoms like the United States of America. The Supreme Court has passed laws which allow more freedom of expression than ever before. By hearing this, you may think that everyone is happy in the U.S. Well, a lot are, but to gain these freedoms, there was once a price to pay. Several people have been beaten, verbally assaulted, and killed for others to gain freedom that they deserve. I ask: At what price should freedom come? In December or 1965, in Des Moines, Iowa, a 15 year old girl and her brother wore black armbands to protest the Vietnam War. The Principal then decided that no student should be allowed to do such demonstrations, and after a warning, he suspended anyone wearing the bands. Later that day both wearers of the bands were suspended until January. The 2 students too it to federal court where they said that they had the right to wear the bands under the First Amendment right. They ended up loosing because the armbands would "disturb school discipline". About 4 years later, the decision was changed in favor of the students. Soon after, in the 1970's, more and more court battles about the First Amendment appeared. Without the help of the 2 students getting suspended, the First Amendment may have still been limited. Ever since dated history in the U.S. has begun, slavery had always gone on. Africans were forced to do the work and labor of the Americans. Black females were forced to do work in the kitchen such as cook and clean the house. Black men worked in the farm, picking cotton, and loading wagons with the crops. Slaves were often beaten by their owners and slave traders. Some were killed or mutilated for doing a "wrong" deed such as learning to read. If the slaves tried to escape from their home to the north, they would be beaten and brought back immediately. The blacks coming from Africa had to rights whatsoever. Slavery went on in the United States until the mid 1800's. The Emancipation Proclamation, which was issued in 1863 made slavery illegal in all the states in the U.S. It took the hard work and determination that one day the blacks of America would be free. A severe price of freedom, but one that stands out and may be worth while. In conclusion, freedom has a heavy price

American Colonies

2000-10-09T14:00:00-04:00

When settlers from England came to America, they envisioned a Utopia, where they would have a say in what the government can and cannot do. Before they could live in such a society they would have to take many small steps to break the hold England had on them. The settlers of America had to end a monarchy and start their own, unique, form of government. They also had to find a way that they would have some kind of decision making power. The most important change that the colonies in America had to make was to become a society quite different from that in England. By 1763 although some colonies still maintained established churches, other colonies had accomplished a virtual revolution for religious toleration and separation of church and state. During the mid-1600's England was a Christian dominated nation; the colonies, however, were mainly Puritans. When Sir Edmond Andros took over a Puritan church in Boston for Anglican worship, the Puritans believed this was done to break their power and authority. The Puritan church in New England was almost entirely separated from the state, except that they taxed the residents for the church’s support. The churches in New England had no temporal power, unlike the church of England. Many seaport towns like Marble head and Gloucester, became more religious as time pasted. This show of religious freedom was a way in which the colonies had religious toleration and differed from the Christian church in England. Unlike the well-defined social classes of England, the colonies had a streamline class structure, which gave individuals the chance to rise on the social latter. New settlers living on the coast could become rich by fishing and selling what they caught. If fishing was not a settler’s strong point, then they could try their hand at farming. Getting the land to farm on was the easy part. The ‘head right’ system gave each male 50 acres, and 50 acres to each indentured servant he might bring over. England could not do this because England so defined the social classes and they did not have enough land that they could give to every male and his indentured servant. In a similar economic revolution, the colonies out grew their mercantile relationship with England and developed their own expanding capitalist system. The idea of a set amount of wealth in the world and that if one were to become wealthy,

The Creek Indians

2000-09-16T14:00:00-04:00

Location and Background The early English traders gave the Creek native Americans their name because they usually built their villages on or near creeks or rivers. If they were to still have their villages it would include areas of Northern Florida and Eastern Louisiana and Southern Tennessee. The majority of the villages were located along the banks of the Coosa, Tallaposa, Flint, Ocmulgee, and Chattachoochee rivers. The native word for the most powerful band of Creeks was the “Muskogees”. The Creek native Americans were the most powerful and widespread tribe of the Southeast culture area. It was also thought that the Creeks were long lost ancestors of the Mound Builders. Villages “The Chief of The Creek village or tribe was called an amirco, but he was not the absolute ruler.” His job in the village included making important decisions.Once he made a decision many town criers would go out to announce the it to other tribes within the Creek. The Creeks were agricultural, but war like. The number of Creeks at one time was 30,000. The villages were separated into two red and white. Red towns had warriors who launched raids far and wide for purposes of honor and revenge. Red Creeks usually held war dances often to protect them selves in battle. Within the white towns lived most of the peace makers who kept track of alliances and gave sanctuary to refugees or poor people. White Creeks held ceremonies such as the signing of treaties or alliances. Each village had a town square at its center with seats where spectators could sit.The town square was used for ceremonies and games. Each village had a circular town house with clay walls and a cone shaped bark roof about 25 feet high. This was a ceremonial lodge and was also used for shelter for the homeless. Some town houses were smaller with a slanted bark roof only about 10 feet high. The most common house had a slanted bark roof with the roof about 7 feet high these were used for individual families, it held about, four to five people in it.. Each family had a summer and winter house both were packed with mud. The summer house was often used as a guest house for when visitors came to visit. They also owned their own granary which was half open and they also had a warehouse which was open on all four sides similar to

The War of 1812

2000-09-05T14:00:00-04:00

The topic of this book was about how the United States was unprepared when they fought the British and how the war did’nt really have a meaning. The United States had very small forces so therefor they were not prepared when the fought the British. Not to mention the carelessness of William Hull. Since the treaty didnt solve the problems that Great Britain and the United States had, the war had no purpose.The time in which it took place was between the years of 1784 and 1814. The setting was in United States from the Great Lakes to Louisiana to the Atlantic Ocean.The War of 1812 started because when the Americans tried to trade with other countries, the British wouldn’t let the. The British also took American Sailors from there ships and put them in their navy. The War Hawks didn’t like what they were doing to them. President Madison, in 1812, decided to go to war with more powerful British.When the was first started President Madison told William Hull to go to a fort in Detroit with a platoon and find a way to take over. When they reached Mounee River, they put all their gear, including their plans, onto a cargo ship to lighten the load.After the ship left the harbor it was damaged by the British. The British took the plans and attacked the American fort in Detroit. Hull didn’t let his troops attack the British and gave up the fort in panic.Later in the war Americans built a fleet of ships to attack the British fleet in the Great Lakes. The British thought that they could surprise the Americans by waiting for them to get ships into the water. When the Americans put the ships into the water the British left to get more supplies. When the British returned, the Americans were in the water. And a battle was started with the Americans on the winning side.The battle of the War of 1812 was the battle of New Orleans. In that battle the Americans attacked the Red Coats with cannons with metal scrapes inside. Jackson set up his troops by having one live shot and the other line shot and so on with four lines. The way the British were lined up were straight lines of men shoulder to shoulder making it easier for them to be taken out. That one form of attack ended the

Racial Discrimination in America during the 1920's

2000-05-31T14:00:00-04:00

The motto of the United States of America is “E Pluribus Unum” meaning ‘Out of one, many’. It neatly recognises that although America may be a single nation, it is also one originally made up of immigrants who arrived not only from Europe and Asia, but forcibly as slaves from Africa and of Native Americans. It’s population is the most racially and culturally diverse in the world and for that reason is often referred to as a “Melting Pot”. During the 1920’s, racial tensions in American society reached boiling point. New non-protestant immigrants like Jews and Catholics had been arrived in their masses from south-east Europe since early on in the century. Together with Orientals, Mexicans and the Black population these minorities suffered the most at the hands of those concerned with preserving the long established White Anglo-Saxon Protestant (W.A.S.P.) values that were an integral part of American life. Prejudice and racism reared its ugly head in many areas of society, with people showing a tolerance for racist views in the media, literature and towards organisations like the Ku Klux Klan. Also the language, living and working conditions and Government legislation that ethnic minorities were subjected to is further evidence that the twenties was an openly discriminatory decade. It was also during this period of grave hostility directed at ethnic groups that America’s ‘open door’ attitude of “Give me your tired, your poor” towards immigration, officially became a part of history. In the 1920’s Anti-Immigration Organisations that had been founded in the latter parts of the first decade of the twentieth century began to receive much larger and an increasingly influential following. The Immigration Restriction League was one such group, it claimed to have ‘scientific’ evidence that the new immigrants from Southeast Europe were racially inferior and therefor posed to threaten the supremacy of the USA. They believed strongly in WASP values and certainly did not wish to see them become polluted by other religions from minorities like Catholics and Jews. This Social-Darwinist belief was not just popular with the masses, but it’s appeal spread to people of considerable eminence. For example the principals of important American universities like Harvard, Stanford and Chicago were numbered among the Leagues supporters. Another similar organisation looking to conserve the American way if life was the American Protective Association. A leading member, William J.H. Tranyor spoke for their cause when arguing against giving the vote

Dred Scott Desicion

2000-05-30T14:00:00-04:00

The Dred Scott decision was an important ruling by the Supreme Court of the United States that had a significant influence on the issue of slavery. The case was decided in 1857 and, in effect, declared that no black--free or slave--could claim United States citizenship. Slaves were viewed as property, and such had no individual right. Furthermore, the decision indicated that Congress could not prohibit slavery in United States territories. I believe that the decision was morally wrong and failed to recognize the rights of people to be free. In addition, the ruling had many political and social implications, aroused angry resentment in the North and led the nation a step closer to civil war. The decision was finally overridden after the Civil War with the introduction and passage of the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. This amendment, adopted in 1868, extended citizenship to former slaves and gave them the benefit and protection of individual rights. (textbook, 295) The Dred Scott the decision involved a slave owned by U.S. Army surgeon, John Emerson. Emerson lived in Missouri, a state that permitted slavery. In 1834, Scott went to live with Emerson in Illinois, a state that prohibited slavery. They later lived in the Wisconsin Territory, where slavery was forbidden by the Missouri Compromise. In 1838, Scott returned to Missouri with Emerson. Emerson died in Missouri in 1843, and three years later, Scott sued the surgeon's widow for his freedom. Scott based his suit on the argument that his former residence in a free state and a free territory--Illinois and Wisconsin--made him a free man. A state circuit court ruled in Scott's favor, but the Missouri Supreme Court later reversed the decision. Meanwhile, Scott had become legally regarded as the property of John F. A. Sanford of New York. Because Sanford did not live in Missouri, Scott's lawyers were able to transfer the case to a federal court. This court ruled against Scott, and his lawyers then took the case to the Supreme Court. By a majority of 7 to 2, the Supreme Court ruled that Scott could not bring a suit in a federal court. Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, speaking for the majority, declared that Scott could not do so because blacks were not U.S. citizens. The court could have simply dismissed the case after ruling on Scott's citizenship. But there was a growing national desire for a ruling on the constitutionality

War of 1812

2000-05-18T14:00:00-04:00

Background Over the course of the French revolutionary and the Napoleonic wars between France and Great Britain (1793-1815), both belligerents violated the maritime rights of neutral powers. The United States, endeavoring to market its own produce, was especially affected. To preserve Britain's naval strength, Royal Navy officers impressed thousands of seamen from U.S. vessels, including naturalized Americans of British origin, claiming that they were either deserters or British subjects. The United States defended its right to naturalize foreigners and challenged the British practice of impressment on the high seas. Relations between the two nations reached a breaking point in 1807 when the British frigate Leopard fired on the USS Chesapeake in American territorial waters and removed, and later executed, four crewmen. In addition, Britain issued executive orders in council to blockade the coastlines of the Napoleonic empire and then seized vessels bound for Europe that did not first call at a British port. Napoleon retaliated with a similar system of blockades under the Berlin and Milan decrees, confiscating vessels and cargoes in European ports if they had first stopped in Britain. Collectively, the belligerents seized nearly 1500 American vessels between 1803 and 1812, thus posing the problem of whether the United States should go to war to defend its neutral rights. Americans at first prepared to respond with economic coercion rather than war. At the urging of President Thomas Jefferson, Congress passed the Embargo Act of 1807, prohibiting virtually all U.S. ships from putting to sea. Subsequent enforcement measures in 1808-1809 also banned overland trade with British and Spanish possessions in Canada and Florida. Because the legislation seriously harmed the U.S. economy and failed to alter belligerent policies, it was replaced in 1809 by the Non-Intercourse Act, which forbade trade with France and Britain. In 1810 Macon's Bill No. 2 reopened American trade with all nations, but stipulated that if one belligerent repealed its antineutral measures, the United States would then impose an embargo against the other. In August Napoleon announced the repeal of the Berlin and Milan decrees on the understanding that the United States would also force Britain to respect its neutral rights. Although Napoleon continued to seize American vessels in French ports, President James Madison accepted his statements as proof that French antineutral decrees had been lifted. He reimposed the ban on trade with Britain in November 1810 and demanded that the British ministry repeal the orders in council as

The Atomic Bomb

2000-05-05T14:00:00-04:00

The atomic bomb is a powerful, explosive nuclear weapon. It is fueled by the fission of the nuclei of specific amounts of plutonium or uranium, in a chain reaction. The strength of the explosion created by one of these bombs is equal to the strength of an explosion created by thousands of tons of TNT. To detonate one of these bombs, enough mass of plutonium or uranium must be provided to reach what is known as "critical mass." Critical mass is the mass at which the nuclear reactions going on inside the material can make up for the neutrons that are leaving the material through its outside surface. These materials are usually separated within the bomb so that critical mass cannot be reached until the bomb is ready to explode. Once the chemical reactions within the bomb begin, the neutrons released by each reaction hit other atoms and create more fission reactions until all the material is scattered, or completely exhausted. This process releases enormous amounts of energy in the form of extreme heat and a massive shock wave. These nuclear explosions, in addition to their pressure waves, high winds, and flash burns, produce deadly radiation that contaminates soil and water, and destroyed living matter. The atomic bomb was first created in the early twentieth century. Physicists in the United States and Europe had discovered that the fission of uranium could be used to create a deadly explosive weapon. A letter was sent to U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt by Albert Einstein that described this discovery and warned him of its potential dangers if developed by other nations. The Manhattan Project was established by the U.S. government in 1942 so the country could develop an atomic device. A team under the command of United States Army Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves designed and built the first atomic bombs, directed by J. Robert Oppenheimer. This type of bomb was first tested at Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945. The amount of energy that was released by this explosion alone was equivalent to twenty thousand tons of TNT. Many nations have tested nuclear devices, in the atmosphere, under the earth, and under the oceans. Only the United States of America, Russia, Great Britain, France, and China openly admit to possessing these nuclear weapons. Many other nations, however, are thought to have the capability to assemble these items quickly. After World War II ended,

Saddam Hussein: The U.S Portrayal of Evil Encarnate

2000-04-27T14:00:00-04:00

When Iraq invaded and occupied the country of Kuwait in August 1990, the Bush administration was faced with several dilemmas. From a foreign policy point of view, this action could greatly destabilize the balance of power in a part of the world that was vital to U.S. interests. The United States was dependant on a continuous flow of oil to drive its economic machine, which Kuwait supplied greatly. In addition, this move would put more power into the hands of a government that was not only unfriendly to the U.S., but a sworn enemy of the state of Israel, a strong U.S. ally. In addition to, the fall of communism had created what George Bush had described as, “A new world order,” and would become the first major test of how the U.S. would handle its role as the sole remaining super power in this “new world order.” There were many challenges facing the Bush administration as to the manner in which they would handle this first major international crisis. The Bush administration had to develop a consensus of the major remaining powers, and appear not acting alone in its response to President Saddam Hussein’s actions of invading Kuwait. They also yearned to keep Israel from being involved so as not to alienate the remaining Middle Eastern nations. Lastly, they faced a domestic dilemma, in that much of the American public had significant reservations about involving U.S. troops involved in a foreign conflict. There remained a bad taste of Vietnam among the American public, and there were very mixed responses to American involvement in Somalia, Nicaragua, and Grenada. For the Bush administration, Hussein was not a merchant who could be bargained with, but rather an outlaw who would have to be defeated by force. The Bush administration was faced with a task of developing (more or less) overwhelming support from the U.S. people to take any action in Kuwait, which was accomplished by a dramatic public relations move to demonize Saddam Hussein in the eyes of the American people. The task of the United States demonizing Saddam Hussein was facilitated by many factors, both real and imaginary; a mixture of true facts and public relations image making. On the fact side, Saddam Hussein was indeed a dictator, and responsible for some true atrocities. Hussein ruled with an iron fist. Most accounts of political analysts looking at Iraq agree that his

The Cold War

2000-04-16T14:00:00-04:00

A war that has created controversy amongst two of the greatest world leaders, United States of America and The Soviet Union, is known as The Cold War. A dispute between once allied countries arose in the Post-WWII era. The United States and the Allied Powers faced many challenges at the end of WWII. America’s policy was one that contained the spread of communism in Eastern Europe. Russia, under Lenin's rule called for a world revolution and brought the United States into it. It was not until after WWII, that the cold war really began, when the political power of the world shifted from the center of Europe to Moscow and Washington. The Cold War began after the collapse of Germany in May 1945(http://www.coldwar.org/indexrus.html). The creation of the cold war came from the disagreements for postwar Europe and the Far East. Each superpower, the United States, Britain, France and Russia had their own idea of how postwar Europe should look, and many of their ideas clashed. The Cold War arose not from one isolated event, but from the different ideologies and interests between the Soviet Union and the west. Also the Russian government was seeking revenge on the United States because the United States did not enter the war effort soon enough and that caused for more Russian casualties. After WWII After WWII, Germany was divided into four zones and occupied by Britain, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Berlin itself was occupied by the western powers; however, it was surrounded by the Soviet zone. Between 1947 and 1948 cooperation between these powers broke down. The west decided to create a separate government in their zones. To prevent this, the Soviet's increasingly harassed the western traffic to and from Berlin. Russia was trying to spread communism, abolish democracies, and spread poverty. Thus creating the Berlin Blockade, which forced America to create the Berlin Airlift. This created a greater controversy between the United States. This controversy’s caused spies to enter into the opposition’s country. Russia V.S. United States The most visible part of the cold war was the arms race. Massive and expensive militarization movements, especially nuclear weaponry on the part of both nations involved caused a new psychology to develop. The theory of total destruction of the other country was based on three ideas. One: both nations have enough weapons do destroy the other, two: both nations can detect a first strike

FDR vs Clinton

2000-03-25T13:00:00-04:00

The domestic policies and administrations of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and William Jefferson Clinton are in some ways similar, but in other ways very different. The two men were very domestic-oriented presidents, focusing largely on America, and not the outside world. Both Democrats, they supported Federal Government programs to aid the American People. These programs were not necessary, but the presidents felt that they would aid Americans. Roosevelt created many jobs for the unemployed. He did this with such acts as the Unemployment Relief Act, which created the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Civil Works Administration gave temporary jobs to the unemployed during an especially harsh winter, and the Works Progress Administration spent about $11 billion employing people to work on government projects. Roosevelt also provided for money to be given to states to help increase employment. This includes the Federal Relief Administration, that gave $3 million to states to pay wages for work projects as well as direct dole payments. The Tennessee Valley Act dammed up the Tennessee river and created jobs, inexpensive hydroelectric power, cheap nitrates, improved navigation of the river, low cost housing, reforestation, and the restoration of eroded soil. Clinton has also worked for lower unemployment rates. During the first two years of Clinton’s administration, 6 million jobs were created; 7.7 million during the first 34 months. Americorps, formed to help people pay for college and job training, helped to tutor students, immunize children, and restore urban parks. Clinton’s Northwest Forest Plan was contrived to provide jobs in the Northwest and preserve ancient forests at the same time. Since Clinton became president, the unemployment rate has decreased from 7% to 5.6% and the United States currently has its lowest combined rate of inflation and unemployment since the beginning of Nixon’s Administration in 1968. Clinton has also continued several programs that were pioneered by Roosevelt, such as Social Security and Bank Security. Clinton’s Social Security Independent Agency Act, Interstate Banking Bill, and the Community Development Banking Financial Institutions Act’s roots can be traced back to Roosevelt’s Social Security Act of 1935 and Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act. Both Clinton and Roosevelt also advocated the rights of workers. Roosevelt secured the unions’ right to form and to bargain with a representative of their choice with his National Labor Relations Act, and created a minimum wage, maximum hours, and limited the ages of young workers with his Fair Labor Standards Act. Clinton

The New Deal

2000-03-25T13:00:00-04:00

The New Deal was a political and social plan that was the presidential campaign platform of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Although Roosevelt was very vague about what it was and actual measures to be taken while running for president, the New Deal was the shinning hope for many Americans who had lost their jobs or were living in poverty. After the United States had plummeted into the greatest depression to face this country while Herbert Hoover lead the country, many voters were looking for anyone with a promising plan and a bright outlook. As banks closed and unemployment rates soared, Roosevelt promised a balanced budget, and spoke of Hoover’s rash and excessive spending. The election of 1932 was a landslide in Roosevelt’s favor, and he quickly took over as soon as he began his term. Roosevelt called a special session of Congress lasting from March 9 until June 16 in 1933. Roosevelt began to put his “New Deal” into action. With a democratic majority in Congress on his side, Roosevelt churned out legislation rapidly from the generally sluggish machine of Congress. Banks had been closing all over the country due to frightened citizens withdrawing all of their money. In order to increase trust in them, Congress passed the Emergency Banking Relief Act of 1933, which allowed the government to reopen closed banks, and regulate banking and foreign exchange. The Glass-Steagall Banking Reform Act was later passed in order to form the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, insurance to civilians for their banking deposits up to $5,000, which was later raised. These to bills encouraged the public to once again trust their banks, and to deposit money in the banks instead of hiding it “under their mattresses.” Compared to the more than 4,000 bank failures of 1933, there were only 57 in 1934 because of these actions. The Agricultural Adjustment Act and the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation were both formed to help farmers and other households with paying their mortgages, as well as helping the mortgage-holding banks to stay in business. The Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act suspended mortgage foreclosures for three years, and moved farmers with small amounts of poor land to better areas. Trees were planted in the deserted areas in an attempt to prevent soil erosion and block the wind. Moving on from this, Roosevelt decreed that all privately owned gold be turned in to the Treasury and to be paid back

The Spanish American war

2000-03-15T13:00:00-04:00

Hi I'm doing my report on the Spanish American War. In the following pages I will be giving information on how and why the war started, major battles, and the results of the war. I will also include stories from people on the battleship Maine. Introduction The Spanish American War marked the emergence of the United States of America as a world power. The war which lasted only 10 weeks between April and August of 1898 took place over the liberation of Cuba. In the course of the war the U.S. won Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands. A large aspect to the begining of the war was the explosion and sinking of the Maine on February 15 1898 at 9:30 PM in Havana Harbor. 260 American naval personnel where killed or wounded. The USS Maine was the second "second class" battle ship constructed for the U.S. Navy. It took almost nine years to complete three year took waiting for armor. The USS Maine was at the time the largest ship to be built in a U.S. Navy yard. The USS Maine arrived in the Havana harbor in Cuba on Jan. 24 of 1898. The USS Manie was sent to Cuba in response to a small protest by Spanish officers. The ship was under the command of Captian Charles Sigsbee. When the Manie sank there where 2 separate explosions ammunition continuted to explode for hours after the blast. Some people say that the Maine was torpedoed or blown up with under water explosives by the Spanish Navy, others say that the 896 ton capacity coal bunker exploded but most people at the time said that the ship was torpedoed and blamed Spain for the sinking of the ship. After the disaster an official court of inquiry was held to determine the cause of the blast. The Navy said that the ship was sunk by a water mine, but stated that it could not fix responsibility on any single person or persons. Declaration of war At the time of the sinking of the Maine U.S. President William Mckinley was in office. Pres. Mckinley had hoped to avoid going to war with Spain but along with thousands of other Americans was swept up in the feeling to support war. In 1898 Pres. mckinley asked to declare war on Spain. The war begins At the begining of the war there were almost 200,000 Spanish troops located in Cuba. About

The Salem Witch Trials - A Research Paper

2000-03-01T13:00:00-05:00

Why do you hurt these children? I do not hurt them. I scorn it. Have you made no contract with the devil? No! Mr. John Hathorn, a Judge involved in the witchcraft case of Sarah Good, then asked all of the afflicted children to look upon her and see if this was the person that had hurt them so. They all gazed at Goody Good and said that this was the person that tormented them—presently they were all tormented. Puritanical beliefs had all of Salem truly believing that witches rode on broomsticks across the sky every night alongside the devil himself. They believed that these mere humans could send their “specter” out and haunt the children of their town. Proof of their belief follows, in an excerpt from Cotton Mather’s Memorable Providences: Go tell Mankind, that there are Devils and Witches; and that tho those night-birds least appear where the Day-light of the Gospel comes, yet New-Engl. has had Exemples of their Existence and Operation; and that no only the Wigwams of Indians, where the pagan Powaws often raise their masters, in the shapes of Bears and Snakes and Fires, but the House of Christians, where our God has had his constant Worship, have undergone the Annoyance of Evil spirits. Go tell the world, What Prays can do beyond all Devils and Witches, and What it is that these Monsters love to do; and through the Demons in the Audience of several standers-by threatned much disgrace to thy Author, if he let thee come abroad, yet venture That, and in this way seek a just Revenge on Them for the Disturbance they have given to such as have called on the Name of God. Rebecca Nurse Goody Nurse was a highly regarded, pious pillar of the community who unfortunately could not withstand the power of hysteria. There were many reasons that Rebecca was accused, but it was mostly the hatred exhibited towards her by the Putnam family. She was against Samuel Parris as Reverend of the Salem Town Church, while the Putnam family was his friend, and her husband was at war with the Putnam family estate over some land. Rebecca exuded a saint-like presence over the dark days of the witch-hunt. After her accusation, thirty-nine of the most prominent leaders of the community signed a petition attesting to Rebecca’s goodness of heart. Even one of her original accusers, Jonathan Putnam, put his name to the appeal.

Arthur Miller and his Distorted Historical Accuracies

2000-02-29T13:00:00-05:00

In 1953, Arthur Miller wrote his famous play The Crucible, in response to a fear of Communism that had developed in the United States during that decade. The “Red Scare”, as it was later called by historians was led by Senator Joseph McCarthy, whose paranoia of a communist takeover spread through the nation like a wildfire. Men and women alike fell victim to McCarthy’s pointed finger and as a result of this hysteria, were mostly deported from the country, their careers and lives ruined. Some argue today that McCarthy’s plan had been to use the fear of the American people to throw his enemies out of office and gain power himself. Whatever McCarthy’s motives may have been, Arthur Miller realized the senator’s ludicracy when he attempted to accuse the President himself to be Communist. Miller and the rest of the American people drew the line and McCarthy was seen a fraud. By the time the rest of the public had came to this realization, Miller’s play was written. The Crucible is a play in which Arthur Miller parallels events of the Salem witch trials of 1692 to the problems that were plaguing his own society. The statement that most readers today bring out of the play is that history has a way of repeating itself. Miller’s play was an extreme hit upon release and won a Tony award. The play is so popular today that many teachers in secondary schools use it to base their lesson around when teaching their students about 1692 Salem and there are multimedia activities based on Salem through The Crucible’s view. Miller is often asked to speak at events where similar “witch hunts” occur, acting as a sort of expert on the subject of Puritan Salem and acts of hysteria. The question is, why is Arthur Miller revered by so many as “the man to ask” regarding the Salem Witch trials when his play had many inaccuracies, some very obvious? Miller’s play is not a historical account of the events in 1692 Salem, but rather a work of fiction. It is important to realize that what Miller wrote is not fact by revealing where his play is historically flawed. Some of the more important discrepancies are discussed below: By examining Miller’s main plot relationship between characters Abigail Williams and John Proctor, we uncover many discrepancies, mainly that there was no relationship at all. To begin, there was

History of the Ferrari

2000-02-27T13:00:00-05:00

Ferrari, when most people think of this word they think of two things: speed and sport. Ferrari is one of the most distinguished cars in history. It has won more races than almost any other cars racing. It is also just delicate a machine as it is the fast and furious sports car. Ferrari has come a great distance since its begins in the stock races onto the modern road. It has been compared with such great cars as the Bugatti and Alfa Romeo. In my report I will tell you the beginning and the future of this famous sports car. The Maker The man who made Ferrari, and made the name, was Enzo Ferrari. Born in Modena February 18, 1898. Forced to leave school when his father died he got work as a turning instructor in the Modena Fire Brigades' workshop. He served in WW I as a mechanic and later found work as a test driver in 1918 in Turin. He later moved to CMN to become a race car driver and tester. His racing debut came in the 1919 Parma-Berceto race and he entered the Targa Florio that same year. In 1920, he moved to Alfa Romeo establishing a relationship that lasted two decades and a career that took him from test driver to race driver to sales assistant and finally to the post of Director of the Alfa Racing Division until November 1939. (www.ferrari.it/storia/enzoferr.e/enzoferr.html) In 1929 he joined with Alfa Romeo. He made the name Scuderia Ferrari. His goal was to organize racing for Alfa. He fully took over in 1933 and in 1940 completely separated from Alfa. The workshop was bombed out in 1944 and rebuilt in 1946 the year in which it started designing and building the very first Ferrari. In 1963 Enzo Ferrari built his Istituto Professionale per l'Industria e l'Artigianato, a training school in Maranello. In 1972 he built the Fiorano test track. (www.ferrari.it/storia/enzoferr.e/enzoferr.html) He received numerous awards for his automotive genius, such as Italian award of Cavaliere and the Gold Medal from the Italian School of Art and Culture. After his many accomplishments and his numerous racing wins, he died on August 14 1988. The Early Years Now I will tell you of the early years of this car. The first Ferrari's were stock and racing cars, the Ferrari became a "street car" in about 1950, and were made in Maranello during WW II with the soul purpose

The Spanish-American War:

2000-02-26T13:00:00-05:00

During the last years of the nineteenth century, the United States would find itself involved in what John Jay, the American secretary of state, later referred to as a "splendid little war; begun with highest motives, carried on with magnificent intelligence and spirit, favored by that fortune which loves the brave." From an American standpoint, because there were few negative results, and so many significantly positive consequences, John Jay was correct in calling the Spanish-American War a "splendid little war." The defeat of the Spanish forces marked the end of their rule in the Americas and also marked the rise of the United States as a global military power. The Spanish-American War affected the United States in a number of other ways. It helped speed the construction of the Panama Canal and also resulted in the U.S.'s acquisition of foreign territories. There were also many other minor positive outcomes to the war as opposed to the few negative consequences that resulted. The Spanish-American War was the brief conflict that the United States waged against Spain in 1898. The war had grown out of the Cuban struggle for independence, and whose other causes included American imperialism and the sinking of the U.S warship Maine. The actual hostilities in the war lasted four months, from April 25 to August 12, 1898. Most of the fighting occurred in or near the Spanish colonial possessions of Cuba and the Philippines, nearly halfway around the world form each other. In both battlegrounds, the decisive military event was the complete destruction of a Spanish naval squadron by a vastly superior U.S. fleet. These victories, after brief resistance, brought about the surrender of the Spanish to U.S. military forces as indicated by a peace treaty signed between the two countries on December 10, 1898, in Paris, France. In the end, the Americans had minimal casualties, while the Spanish suffered immense fatalities and damage to their naval resources (Encyclopedia Britannica). The Spanish-American War marked the end of Spain's colonial empire and the end of its rule in the Americas. Since the early 19th century, Americans had watched the series of revolutions that ended Spanish authority throughout South America, Central America, and Mexico. Many people in the United States, however, were irritated by the fact that the Spanish flag continued to fly in Cuba and Puerto Rico. Spain's brutal ways of putting down Cuban demands for some form of personal liberty

Truman's Domestic Policy

2000-02-21T13:00:00-05:00

Despite strong opposition from a Republican congress, Truman attempted to extend Roosevelt’s New Deal policies by strengthening social security, conservation, implementing rent controls, and providing housing to low-income families. At times, however, Truman was inconsistent with his own party’s beliefs and the ideal of the New Deal in order to suit the immediate situation and retain public support. Furthermore, Truman supported civil rights actions and for the first time, increased the political status of African American citizens. Truman’s various other reforms were much like the proposals of Roosevelt, but the mood of the nation due to its affluence and that of Congress opposed his efforts and the changing times proved that Truman’s Fair Deal was not as necessary as FDR’s New Deal. Truman’s organized policy to elaborate on the New Deal was termed the Fair Deal and aimed to improve social conditions like Roosevelt’s plan had done previously. His immediate goals were full employment and an improved economy, as well as to provide for the common good. The Fair Labor Standards Act increased the minimum wage from 40 cents to 75 cents and the Social Security Act increased benefits to the elderly by 77.5%. Also, to the advantage of those who lived in rented homes and apartments, Truman lengthened rent controls to March 1951, and in addition, the Housing Act vowed to eliminate slums and established 810,000 low-income houses, thus providing a good amount of citizens with affordable housing. The president also implemented the Employment Act in 1946 to help stabilize the postwar economy. The act created a three member council of economic advisors and a joint committee to study and propose stabilization measures. Moreover, Truman attempted to establish a Missouri Valley Authority while extending the power of the Tennessee Valley authority, but was unsuccessful. However, the president did obtain increases in hydroelectric, water control, and irrigation projects in the west. Like Roosevelt, Truman was concerned about the welfare of farmers and encouraged the Brennan Plan to maintain farm income standards through price supports, loans, and storage of nonperishable commodities. Although the plan failed , the Agriculture Act of October, 1949 continued price supports at 90% parity through 1950 and then at 75-90% afterwards. This act was consistent with New Deal farm policy. Truman made other New Dealish attempts, like National Health Insurance and federal aid to education, but both were defeated with the help of protests by interest groups,

2000-02-20T13:00:00-05:00

America's Great Depression

2000-02-18T13:00:00-05:00

The Great Depression is probably one of the most misunderstood events in American history. It is routinely cited, as proof that unregulated capitalism is not the best in the world, and that only a massive welfare state, huge amounts of economic regulation, and other Interventions can save capitalism from itself. Among the many myths surrounding the Great Depression are that Herbert Hoover was a laissez faire president and that FDR brought us out of the depression. What caused the Great Depression? To get a handle on that, it's necessary to look at previous depressions and compare. The Great Depression was by no means the first depression this country ever had, but it was clearly the worst. What made it different than the rest? At the time of the Great Depression, government intervention in the economy was higher than it had ever been and a special government agency had been set up specifically to prevent depressions and their associated problems, such as bank panics. This agency was the Federal Reserve Board and it was to have been the loaner of last resorts for banks in order to prevent collapses as had happened during earlier depressions. But as America sees, there is good reason to believe that the Federal actions explain many of the problems that lead up to the stock market crash and the subsequent depression. Although there are many macroeconomics schools of thought, this paper will be concentrating on two initially, Keynesian economics and Austrian School economics. Keynesian economics got its start during the Great Depression with the publication in 1936 of The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, by John Maynard Keynes. Austrian School economics began much Earlier, most notably with the publication in 1871 of Carl Menger's Principles of Economics. While the Austrian theory has Never been mainstream (economist Paul Krugman refers to it as the economic equivalent of the phlogiston theory), its adherents are some of the harshest critics of Keynesian interventions. The greater of the two economic systems used has got to be Keynesian. The exact cause of business cycles is one of the biggest problems in economics. There are several explanations. The current Keynesian models rely on what is referred to as "sticky wages" (or "sticky prices") to explain why the cycles occurs. Under these models, wages or prices fail to reach their market clearing level. The Austrian School explanation is that all business

How James Watt affected the economic growth of our nation

2000-02-08T13:00:00-05:00

James Watt made many contributions to this country during the Industrial Revolution. He made numerous improvements on the Newcome steam engine, invented the term horse power, and designed the Sun and Planet wheel. He contributed most of his life to make others’ lives easier and for them to prosper and grow. In 1763 John Anderson asked Watt to repair one of his steam engines which was an early version of a Newcome steam engine. This engine wasted a lot of time and fuel so it was economically inefficient. The reasons for the inefficiency was the cylinder had to be heated when steam was admitted and then slowly cooled down again to condense the steam. This process wasted a lot of time, energy, and steam. As he was wandering through Glasgow Green he struck upon an idea that would revolutionize the steam engine. This idea was “that in order to make the best use of the steam it was necessary that first, that the cylinder should always remain as hot as the steam which entered it; secondly that when the steam was condensed, the water of which it is composed, and injection itself, should be cooled down to a 100 degrees, or lower where it is possible.” This method did not work at first, but in 1765 he discovered “that if a communication were opened between a cylinder containing steam and another vessel, which was exhausted of air and other fluids, the steam, as an elastic fluid would immediately rush into the empty vessel, and continue to do so until it had established an equilibrium. If that vessel were kept dry and cool by an injection, or otherwise, more steam would continue to enter until the whole was condensed.” He fixed the problem of water and air coming out of the exhausted vessel by adding a pump to extract both air and water. This is Watt’s great contribution to the Newcome steam engine which would now run faster, cleaner, safer, and more economically efficient. This made the steam engine a useful economical source of power which for over a hundred years stayed exactly the same without alteration. Watt charged his customers a price for using his steam engines. To justify this he compared his machine to a horse. Watt calculated that a horse exerted a pull of 180 lbs., therefore, when he made a machine, he described its power in relation to a

How the Adams-Onís Treaty affected the growth of our nation

2000-02-08T13:00:00-05:00

Americans were interested in further expansion and looked to the weak Spanish provinces of East and West Florida. The Spanish were reluctant to give up what is now Florida, but in the end they worked out an agreement called the Adams Onis Treaty. In this essay I will describe how the Americans eventually got these provinces, the set backs of the signing of the treaty, and how it effected the economic growth of our nation. Americans living in West Florida between the Iberville and Perdido Rivers declared their independence, and President Madison ordered the Governor of New Orleans Territory to take control of the independent land. The Americans now had control over half the territory they wanted but this did not satisfy them, this only made them more eager to gain control of East Florida. Almost two years after this event peace concluded, but Spain still had possession of East Florida. This time Spain only had two solutions to avoid a shameful political break down over this region. One was to gain support of a European ally, and the second was to get some form of honor in this event by winning some of the United States best land else where in North America. The first plan fell through, Britain and other European nations refused to help Spain. They eventually fell to having discussions with the United States. The American government was entirely willing to have discussion of the East Florida issue become the end result of all Spanish-American boundary questions. John Quincy Adams was the Secretary of State and was the person taking care of all discussions between the U.S. and Spain. He saw that this was a perfect time to try to extend the boundary to the Pacific Ocean. Luis de Onís was the minister of Spain at the time and he was the Spanish representative to the U.S. His instructions from the Spanish government was to transfer the Florida’s to the United States in return for the American settlement west of the Mississippi. Onis was also to get a promise that the United States would not give material aid to, or recognize the independence of Spain’s colonies in South America because of their lack of cooperation. Difficulties came up over negotiating a satisfactory boundary in the West and also over the command to put American military in East Florida in 1818. The first problem made the negotiations last longer, but

The Chesapeake and New England Colonies: A Comparison

2000-01-21T13:00:00-05:00

During the late 16th century and into the 17th century, European nations rapidly colonized the newly discovered Americas. England in particular sent out numerous groups to the eastern coast of North America to two regions. These two regions were known as the Chesapeake and the New England areas. Later, in the late 1700’s, these two areas would bond to become one nation. Yet from the very beginnings, both had very separate and unique identities. These differences, though very numerous, spurred from one major factor: the very reason the settlers came to the New World. This affected the colonies in literally every way, including economically, socially, and politically. The Chesapeake region of the colonies included Virginia, Maryland, the New Jerseys (both East and West) and Pennsylvania. In 1607, Jamestown, the first English colony in the New World (that is, the first to thrive and prosper), was founded by a group of 104 settlers to a peninsula along the James River. These settlers hoped to find gold, silver, a northwest passage to Asia, a cure for syphilis, or any other valuables they might take back to Europe and make a profit. Lead by Captain John Smith, who “outmaneuvered other members of the colony’s ruling and took ruthlessly took charge” (Liberty Equality Power, p. 57), a few lucky members of the original voyage survived. These survivors turned to the local Powhatan Indians, who taught them the process of corn- and tobacco-growing. These staple-crops flourished throughout all five of these colonies. New England was north of the Chesapeake, and included Massachusetts Bay Colony, Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Haven (which soon became part of Connecticut). The New Englanders were largely Puritan Separatists, who sought religious freedom. When the Church of England separated from Catholicism under Henry VIII, Protestantism flourished in England. Some Protestants, however, wanted complete separation from Catholicism and embraced Calvinism. These “Separatists” as they were called, along with persecuted Catholics who had not joined the Church of England, came to New England in hopes of finding this religious freedom where they would be free to practice as they wished. Their motives were, thus, religious in nature, not economic. In fact, New England settlers reproduced much of England’s economy, with only minor variations. They did not invest largely in staple crops, instead, relied on artisan-industries like carpentry, shipbuilding, and printing. The Chesapeake and New England attracted different types of settlers and, by 1700, the populations

Articles of Confederation

2000-01-17T13:00:00-05:00

Soon after the Revolutionary War in America, a new government was started when the Articles of Confederation (Articles) were adopted by the Continental Congress. The Articles set up a democratic government that gave the States the power to make their own laws and to enforce them. However, the Articles were ineffective and failed to provide a strong government. During this Critical Period in the history of the United States, regionalism and anarchy were growing because of the following reasons. 1) The Continental Congress controlled public affairs but there was nothing in the Articles that gave Congress the power to enforce laws or unify the States. 2) There was no solid monetary system to ensure that taxes would be paid or to protect commerce, both nationally and foreign trade. 3) The country lacked unity and strength because there was no leadership. The Articles were ineffective because Congress only had the power to recommend actions to the States. It could not enforce its recommendations or laws. Each State had its own constitution, monetary system, and means to enforce the law. Each State had a stronger commitment to the State laws and to the State's own self interests than to the recommendations of Congress. Regionalism pitted one State against another, which decreased the sense of unity in the country. For example, when Congress recommended an impost, or duty, on imported goods, the State of Rhode Island voted to reject the idea because they felt it was unfair and was against the constitution of the State (Document A). The Articles failed to provide a solid monetary system to ensure that taxes would be paid or to protect commerce. Congress had no way to collect taxes to pay off pre-war debts. This led to chaos and anarchy when soldiers that hadn't been paid marched on Philadelphia, and Congress had to flee to Princeton New Jersey (Document C). Each State had it's own money, but there was no national money system. Since the money had no value from state to state, the people began to use the barter system of trade. This reduced the amount of trade and importation of goods. There was very little economic progress and growth during this period even though the population was increasing. (Document B). Self interest of the States and of individuals added to the cause of the problems. For example, John Jay tried to create a treaty with Great Britain that

Native American Genocide

2000-01-09T13:00:00-05:00

b. causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; c. deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; d. imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; e. forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. (Destexhe). In this paper, I will argue that the act of genocide as here defined, has been committed by the United States of America, upon the tribes and cultures of Native Americans, through mass indoctrination of its youths. Primary support will be drawn from Jorge Noriega's work, "American Indian Education in the United States." The paper will then culminate with my personal views on the subject, with ideas of if and how the United States might make reparations to its victims. In lieu of the well known and brutal "Indian Wars," there is a means of cultural destruction of Native Americans, which began no later than 1611. This method was one of indoctrination. Methods included the forced removal of children from their cultural milieu and enrollment of these children in "educational programs," which were intended to instill more European beliefs. As the United States was not formally a Nation, until 1776, it would not be fair to use evidence, before this year in building a case against it. The most damaging, to the United States, are parcels of evidence that are drawn from events after 1948, the year of the Convention on Genocide. Beginning in 1778, the United States Board of War, a product of the Continental Congress appropriated grants for the purpose of, "the maintenance of Indian students at Dartmouth College and the College of New Jersey…" The young people who had returned from the schools are described by Seneca leader, Cornplanter as, "…ignorant of every means of living in the Woods, unable to bear either Cold or Hunger, [they] knew neither how to build a Cabin, take a Deer, or kill an Enemy, [they] spoke our Language imperfectly, were therefore neither fit for Hunters, Warriors, nor Counselors; they were totally good for nothing" (Noriega, 376). Grants given to other schools was just the beginning. In 1820, the United States made plans for a large scale system of boarding and day schools Noriega, 377). These schools were given the mission to, "instruct its students in 'letters, labor and mechanical arts, and morals and Christianity;' 'training many Indian leaders'" Noriega, 378). In the case

American Labor Movement: Development of Unions

2000-01-03T13:00:00-05:00

The American Labor Movement of the nineteenth century developed as a result of the city-wide organizations that unhappy workers were establishing. These men and women were determined to receive the rights and privileges they deserved as citizens of a free country. They refused to be treated like slaves, and work under unbearable conditions any longer. Workers joined together and realized that a group is much more powerful than an individual when protesting against intimidating companies. Unions, coalitions of workers pursuing a common objective, began to form demanding only ten instead of twelve hours in a work day. Workers realized the importance of economic and legal protection against the powerful employers who took advantage of them. (AFL-CIO American Federalist, 1) The beginnings of the American Labor Movement started with the Industrial Revolution. Textile mills were the first factories built in the United States. Once factory systems began to grow, a demand for workers increased. They hired large amounts of young women and children who were expected to do the same work as men for less wages. New immigrants were also employed and called "free workers" because they were unskilled. These immigrants poured into cities, desperate for any kind of work.(Working People, 1) Child labor in the factories was not only common, but necessary for a family’s income. Children as young as five or six manned machines or did jobs such as sweeping floors to earn money. It was dangerous, and they were often hurt by the large, heavy machinery. No laws prevented the factories from using these children, so they continued to do so. (AACTchrNET, 1) "Sweatshops" were created in crowded, unsanitary tenements. These were makeshift construction houses, dirty and unbearably hot. They were usually formed for the construction of garments. The wages, as in factories, were pitifully low, no benefits were made, and the worker was paid by the number of pieces he or she completed in a day. Unrealistic demands were put on the workers who could barely afford to support their families. (1) The United States had the highest job-related fatality rate of any other industrialized nation in the world. Everyone worked eighty hours or more a week for extremely low wages. Men and women earned twenty to forty percent less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life. The number was even worse for children. (Department of Humanities Computing, 2) Often workers would go home after a long day and

Patrick Henry: Fight against the Constitution

1999-12-30T13:00:00-05:00

Although Henry refused to serve on the Constitutional Convention, Madison needed Henry's persuasive ways. Henry had a way to make people agree with his ideas. Even though Henry didn't serve on the Constitutional Convention, he was still present to put in his word. As soon as the meetings opened, Henry began to argue against the Constitution. This argument went on for three weeks. Henry was aware that the new government had to be strong, but felt that the Constitution made the central government too powerful. He thought that the power should lay in the hands of the states. "What right had they [the group that wrote the Constitution] to say 'We the people,' instead We, the States?" he demanded. Not only was Henry in fear of the central government gaining power, but was also worried about protecting the South. He felt that the fast growing North would have more impute into how the government was to be ran. Henry feared that the South would be out voted in Congress. Patrick Henry was quoted before by saying, "I am not a Virginian. I am American." Henry meant that all the states, North or South, should get equal say in what happens in the government. After all it is the same country and will effect both sides. Also, Henry refused to support the Constitution because it was lacking a bill of rights. He called it, "the most fatal plan that could possibly be conceived to enslave a free people." In other words he thought that without a bill of rights, we (the people) would be enslaving ourselves. Henry thought that the Constitution didn't protect the basic freedom of the people. Henry believed that people wouldn't be safe from a powerful government without the bill of rights. The Constitution took away the power from the states, ignored the South, and didn't protect the people it represented. To Patrick Henry, these were big mistakes and couldn't put his support behind them. When the power is taken away from the states, it makes the federal government very strong. He knew that there had to be a strong central government, but felt that the Constitution went too far. Henry wanted to protect the South. After all, at that time the South was more than half the country. If the country at that time was compared to a human body, the South was the heart of the country.

Transcendentalism

1999-12-21T13:00:00-05:00

Transcendentalism was a movement in philosophy, literature, and religion that emerged and was popular in the nineteenth century New England because of a need to redefine man and his place in the world in response to a new and changing society. The industrial revolution, universities, westward expansion, urbanization and immigration all made the life in a city like Boston full of novelty and turbulence. Transcendentalism was a reaction to an impoverishment of religion and mechanization of consciousness of eighteenth century rational doctrines that ceased to be satisfying. After the success of the American Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, an American man emerged confident and energetic. However, with the release of nervous energy, an American was forced to look at a different angle at his place in the world and society. The world of the nineteenth century Boston was that of emergence of new currents of thought in response to the conservative atmosphere. The wealthy upper classes (the aristocracy) were conservative and suspicious of any innovations. They dominated the society and demanded conformity to their social ideals, being suspicious of any new structure of society. The irony was that by their reliance on tradition and old beliefs (such as Puritanism) they acknowledged the harmony with cosmic law. Old values and traditions would serve as a base to Transcendentalism, although a radical movement in itself. In the nineteenth century America plunged into the Industrial Revolution. In the eighteenth century, goods were produced in home system operations. The remarkable development of capitalism in Boston became evident after the French and Indian war of 1812. Two of huge factories privately owned in Boston were Francis Lowell's Boston Manufacturing Company in Waltham and Merrimack Manufacturing Company in Lowell. As the role of women in society became more indiscriminate, young females dominated factory towns such as Lowell. They came from all over New England's farms and small towns, worked for a few years and then returned. Thus the mill populations were transient. With mechanization of textiles, new styles and fashions developed. Thus newness was becoming a virtue rather than peril. Improvement of transportation made urbanization and westward expansion more rapid. Cumberland Turnpike was built in 1811. Erie Canal, finished in 1825, connected Hudson River with the Great Lakes. Baltimore and Ohio Steam Railroad of 1828 linked the country. The first successful steamboat, Clermont, was launched in 1807. Between 1789 and 1850 the total population of the

JFK Assination - Conspiracy

1999-12-16T13:00:00-05:00

What reasons did the HSCA in suggesting that John F Kennedy was the victim of a conspiracy? In 1976, the US Senate ordered a fresh inquiry into the assassination of John F Kennedy, who was murdered in 1963 during a motorcade in Dallas, Texas. People who had been involved in the original Warren Commission investigations were asked to make fresh statements. The FBI and the CIA were persuaded to release more of their documents on Oswald. New lines of inquiry were opened and individuals who had not previously given evidence were persuaded to come forward. Most important of all, pieces of evidence such as photos and sound recordings were subjected to scientific analysis using the most up-to-date methods and equipment. The House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) completed their investigation in 1979 and they finally came to a discrete verdict that Lee Harvey Oswald fired three shots at Kennedy, one of which killed the president. The fourth shot was fired from the grassy knoll. They concluded that John Kennedy was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy. There are many reasons why the HSCA came to this verdict, but firstly it was important that the American people understood why this case was re-opened over a decade later! The investigation was set up as direct result of the assassinations of two other major political figures; the civil rights leader, Dr Martin Luther King and the Presidents brother Robert Kennedy, in 1968. Naturally this aroused immense suspicion and the American public started questioning why so many key US figures had been assassinated in the space of just four years when previously this type of incident had been rare. At the time there was also an increasing amount of corruption and scandal within the government. This alarmed the public who had completely trusted the government before. The Watergate Scandal in 1974 involving President Nixon had clearly shown that this was not the case anymore. Nixon had abused his authority and power to his advantage. This indicated that even politicians were prone to sleaze and scandal. As a result of this, people also started questioning the behaviour of the government. This is most likely why they were more receptive in accepting that Kennedy was the victim of a conspiracy, later on. The public also became increasingly interested in the Kennedy assassination as books such as ‘Rush to judgement’ by Mark Lane and ‘Inquest’ by Edward Jay Epstein,

JFK and the Warren Commission

1999-12-16T13:00:00-05:00

Why did the Warren Commission decide that John F Kennedy was shot by Lee Harvey Oswald, acting on his own? On 22 November 1963, President John F Kennedy was shot dead as he took part in a motorcade through the streets of Dallas, Texas. Soon afterwards a man named Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested and accused of having shot Kennedy from the sixth floor of the Texas school Depository building . Even though Oswald refused to co-operate and denied all knowledge of the assassination, he was formerly charged the next day, on the 23 November. However, he never stood trial as just two days later Oswald himself was shot dead by Jack Ruby, a Dallas night club owner, as he was being taken from police headquarters to court. As Jack Ruby went to prison and the police had no longer a suspect to question, President Lyndon Baines Johnson, set up a committee led by chief justice Earl Warren, to conduct an official investigation into Kennedy's murder. They were under immense pressure by the public to come up with a conclusion. On 24 September 1964, the Warren Commission finally issued a report of their findings. They concluded that President Kennedy was murdered by a single gunmen, Lee Harvey Oswald. There were numerous reasons why the Warren Commission came to this conclusion, varying from Oswalds background and most predominantly the hard evidence there was against him. In fact, there was a substantial amount of evidence that linked Oswald to the murder weapon and the crime scene which, undoubtedly helped a great deal in his conviction. The main evidence against Oswald was a unique Mannlicher-Carcano rifle, which was recovered on the sixth floor of the school depository building and had allegedly been used for the shooting. Witnesses claimed that three shots had been fired. Three spent cartridges were found alongside the rifle. Ballistics proved that the fragments from two bullets that were recovered from the Presidents limousine and from the wounds of Kennedy and Governor Connally, came from the same unusual type of rifle, made in Italy during the Second World War. Forsenic evidence also linked Oswald to the weapon. Fibres found on the rifles stock matched those on a shirt Oswald was wearing when he was arrested. Oswalds palm prints were also found on the underside of the gun barrel. His prints were found on a part of the rifle that was exposed

The Bay of Pigs Invasion

1999-12-15T13:00:00-05:00

The story of the failed invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs is one of mismanagement, overconfidence, and lack of security. The blame for the failure of the operation falls directly in the lap of the Central Intelligence Agency and a young president and his advisors. The fall out from the invasion caused a rise in tension between the two great superpowers and ironically 34 years after the event, the person that the invasion meant to topple, Fidel Castro, is still in power. To understand the origins of the invasion and its ramifications for the future it is first necessary to look at the invasion and its origins.

Part I: The Invasion and its Origins.

The Bay of Pigs invasion of April 1961, started a few days before on April 15th with the bombing of Cuba by what appeared to be defecting Cuban air force pilots. At 6 a.m. in the morning of that Saturday, three Cuban military bases were bombed by B-26 bombers. The airfields at Camp Libertad, San Antonio de los Ba¤os and Antonio Maceo airport at Santiago de Cuba were fired upon. Seven people were killed at Libertad and forty-seven people were killed at other sites on the island. Two of the B-26s left Cuba and flew to Miami, apparently to defect to the United States. The Cuban Revolutionary Council, the government in exile, in New York City released a statement saying that the bombings in Cuba were "... carried out by 'Cubans inside Cuba' who were 'in contact with' the top command of the Revolutionary Council ... ." The New York Times reporter covering the story alluded to something being wrong with the whole situation when he wondered how the council knew the pilots were coming if the pilots had only decided to leave Cuba on Thursday after " ... a suspected betrayal by a fellow pilot had precipitated a plot to strike ... ." Whatever the case, the planes came down in Miami later that morning, one landed at Key West Naval Air Station at 7:00 a.m. and the other at Miami International Airport at 8:20 a.m. Both planes were badly damaged and their tanks were nearly empty. On the front page of The New York Times the next day, a picture of one of the B-26s was shown along with a picture of one of the pilots cloaked in a baseball hat and hiding behind dark

The Aboriginal People of Newfoundland

1999-12-15T13:00:00-05:00

The Beothuk people of Newfoundland were not the very first inhabitants of the island. Thousands of years before their arrival there existed an ancient race, named the Maritime Archaic Indians who lived on the shores of Newfoundland. (Red Ochre Indians, Marshall, 4.) Burial plots and polished stone tools are occasionally discovered near Beothuk remains. Some people speculate that, because of the proximity of the artifacts to the former lands of the Beothuk, the Maritime Archaic Indians and the Beothuk may have been related. It is not certain when the Beothuk arrived on the island. In fact little is actually known about the people, compared to what is known about other amerindian civilisations, only artifacts and stories told by elders tell the historians who these people really were. Some speculate that they travelled from "Labrador to Newfoundland across the strait of Belle Isle, which at one time was only 12 miles wide. By about 200 AD the Beothuk Indians were probably well settled into Newfoundland."(Red Ochre, 8) The Beothuk were not alone on Newfoundland wither. The Dorset Eskimos, who came from Cape Dorset regions of the north around 500 BC also shared the island. They presumably had contact with the Beothuk, exchanging tools or engaging in battle. In any case the Dorset Indians died out leaving Newfoundland empty to the control of the Beothuk people who now had no enemies and a wide vast territory. The Beothuk, although part of the Algonkian family developed their own language and culture. The 400 words that are still known from their language prove their Algonkian heritage. The development of their culture was a great success. The success of the Beothuk people as a whole was in part because of their skills in fishing, hunting and travel. They were the "only amerindian group to navigate on the high seas."(Grabowski lecture Oct 4,`96.) This was because of the construction of their canoes. Normally paddling on the high seas is dangerous, but Beothuk canoes were so designed to with stand high waves and stay accurately on course. The canoes "were made of a frame work of spruce and then covered with birch bark."(Red Ochre, 9) They curved high at the sides and a sharp bottom acted as a keel. The high sides protected as a barrier from wave swamping the boat. Because of hunting expeditions on the Funk islands, 60 kilometres from shore, ocean travel was evident and

Changes to the Bill of Rights

1999-12-15T13:00:00-05:00

How many rights do you have? You should check, because it might not be as many today as it was a few years ago, or even a few months ago. Some people I talk to are not concerned that police will execute a search warrant without knocking or that they set up roadblocks and stop and interrogate innocent citizens. They do not regard these as great infringements on their rights. But when you put current events together, there is information that may be surprising to people who have not yet been concerned: The amount of the Bill of Rights that is under attack is alarming. Let's take a look at the Bill of Rights and see which aspects are being pushed on or threatened. The point here is not the degree of each attack or its rightness or wrongness, but the sheer number of rights that are under attack. Amendment I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. ESTABLISHING RELIGION: While campaigning for his first term, George Bush said "I don't know that atheists should be considered as citizens, nor should they be considered patriots." Bush has not retracted, commented on, or clarified this statement, in spite of requests to do so. According to Bush, this is one nation under God. And apparently if you are not within Bush's religious beliefs, you are not a citizen. Federal, state, and local governments also promote a particular religion (or, occasionally, religions) by spending public money on religious displays. FREE EXERCISE OF RELIGION: Robert Newmeyer and Glenn Braunstein were jailed in 1988 for refusing to stand in respect for a judge. Braunstein says the tradition of rising in court started decades ago when judges entered carrying Bibles. Since judges no longer carry Bibles, Braunstein says there is no reason to stand -- and his Bible tells him to honor no other God. For this religious practice, Newmeyer and Braunstein were jailed and are now suing. FREE SPEECH: We find that technology has given the government an excuse to interfere with free speech. Claiming that radio frequencies are a limited resource, the government tells broadcasters what to say (such as news and public and local service programming) and what not to say

Brown v. Board of Education

1999-12-15T13:00:00-05:00

In 1896 the Supreme Court had held in Plessy v. Ferguson that racial segregation was permissible as long as equal facilities were provided for both races. Although that decision involved only passenger accommodations on a rail road, the principle of "separate but equal" was applied thereafter to all aspects of public life in states with large black populations. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, decided on May 17, 1954, was one of the most important cases in the history of the U.S. Supreme Court. Linda Brown had been denied admission

Colonial Times

1999-12-14T13:00:00-05:00

The colonial period was A time of much change, as is the modern period. Many people viewed things differently in the colonial period than they do today. The people of the colonial period had much more traditional values than the people of today. The people of the colonial period thought of religion much more sternly than I do. John Winthrop believed in a very stern God. John Winthrop writes, "Now if the Lord shall please to hear us, and bring us in peace to the place we desire, then hath he ratified this Covenant and sealed our Commission, [and] will expect a strict performance of the Articles contained in it" (43). He believes that God acts completely as he wishes, without any thought for man. Samuel Sewall used religion to help him when he needed help. In his diary, Samuell Sewall writes, "...My Son, the minister, came to me p.m. by appointment and we pray one for another in the Old Chamber; more especially respecting my Courtship"(63). Sewall only acted religious when it was convenient for him. I personally believe in a God much more caring than that Winthrop believed in. I also believe that God is always around, not just when I need him. Different people have many different religious beliefs. Throughout history, views of love have changed. Anne Bradstreet valued love as a strong romantic bond. In Bradstreet's poem, "To My Dear and Loving Husband" she writes, "I prize thy love more than whole mines of gold, Or all the ritches that Earth doth hold"(51). In this excerpt, Bradstreet is speaking to her Husband. John Winthrop viewed love as a religious bond between all men. He writes, "Love is the bond of perfection" (39). Winthrop gives few references to romantic love. I personally think of love as something that people feel for each other just because they are both people. I believe there is an element of love between all people. Love is viewed differently by different people, but these beliefs have little to do with what time period these people lived in. It appears that as time goes by, people view marriage more romantically, and less economically. Samuell Sewell viewed marriage as a way to advance monetarily. In his diary he writes, "I said 'twould cost L100. per annum: she said twould cost but L40"(63). This is just one example of him carefully calculating the costs of marriage. Anne Bradstreet

The Articles of Confederation

1999-12-14T13:00:00-05:00

The Articles of Confederation was the first constitution of the United States of America. The Articles of Confederation were first drafted by the Continental Congress in Philadelphia Pennsylvania in 1777. This first draft was prepared by a man named John Dickinson in 1776. The Articles were then ratified in 1781. The cause for the changes to be made was due to state jealousies and widespread distrust of the central authority. This jealousy then led to the emasculation of the document. As adopted, the articles provided only for a "firm league of friendship" in which each of the 13 states expressly held "its sovereignty, freedom, and independence." The People of each state were given equal privileges and rights, freedom of movement was guaranteed, and procedures for the trials of accused criminals were outlined. The articles established a national legislature called the Congress, consisting of two to seven delegates from each state; each state had one vote, according to its size or population. No executive or judicial branches were provided for. Congress was charged with responsibility for conducting foreign relations, declaring war or peace, maintaining an army and navy, settling boundary disputes, establishing and maintaining a postal service, and various lesser functions. Some of these responsibilities were shared with the states, and in one way or another Congress was dependent upon the cooperation of the states for carrying out any of them. Four visible weaknesses of the articles, apart from those of organization, made it impossible for Congress to execute its constitutional duties. These were analyzed in numbers 15-22 of The FEDERALIST, the political essays in which Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay argued the case for the U.S. CONSTITUTION of 1787. The first weakness was that Congress could legislate only for states, not for individuals; because of this it could not enforce legislation. Second, Congress had no power to tax. Instead, it was to assess its expenses and divide those among the states on the basis of the value of land. States were then to tax their own citizens to raise the money for these expenses and turn the proceeds over to Congress. They could not be forced to do so, and in practice they rarely met their obligations. Third, Congress lacked the power to control commerce--without its power to conduct foreign relations was not necessary, since most treaties except those of peace were concerned mainly with trade. The fourth weakness ensured

Concerns that Caused the Settlement of British North America

1999-12-14T13:00:00-05:00

I believe that throughout the Colonial period, economic concerns had more to do with the settling of British North America than did religious reasons. First, according to my textbook, the British originally sponsored trips over to the New World only after other countries were profiting from their collections of goods and new trade ports. Maybe other countries in Europe had begun settling the New World for

Changes in society from American Revolution to modern times

1999-12-14T13:00:00-05:00

Changes in society from the American Revolution to modern times have been caused by both public opinion and law. Public opinion changed law as such as in the first reading about the Salem Witchcraft trials. After the trial new laws were made regarding how spectral evidence would not be admitted as evidence towards the conviction of a witch, since it is heresay. Also, states never again executed people for being convicted of witchcraft. Since Americans did not desire to be part of the Great Britain empire anymore, they gained their independence and established similar, yet different laws and a constitution. In the second reading, people supported the case of Quok Walker in his suing for freedom, which gave him his freedom through the ruling of the court. Public opinion does have an effect on law, but law also has an effect on the public’s opinion. Laws made people change their opinion about issues such as witchcraft. Since there were laws against being a witch, the people thought that witches were therefore bad and used the laws to their advantage to point fingers at those of whom they were jealous, or wanted vengeance upon. As another example, contributed to the case of Quok Walker resulted in polarization of the people about the issue of slavery. Although American society has evolved considerably over the past few centuries, there are still refinements needed. Our current congress, I believe, takes too long to make simple decisions. When they do, they make too general statements about it, as so to satisfy people because the people wanted a law about something, so the congress gave them one (not necessarily making any real change.) There is a problem in society today regarding the relationship of the family. It used to be that a couple would get married and have a few kids and live somewhat happily ever after. In modern times, couples get married, have kids, get divorced (shattering the children’s lives), and the kids no longer have the trustworthy and close relationship with their parents. Education is one other area which needs "refining." In past decades and centuries, school teachers were allowed to punish the children physically for misbehavior in the classroom. Since the whole child abuse bandwagon was boarded, corporal punishment has been abolished. Since then behavior and respect towards teachers has been on the decline in public schools. Also, in education, there have been standardized

The Constitution

1999-12-12T13:00:00-05:00

A case for the connection of America’s colonial and revolutionary religious and political experiences to the basic principles of the Constitution can be readily made. One point in favor of this conclusion is the fact that most Americans at that time had little beside their experiences on which to base their political ideas. This is due to the lack of advanced schooling among common Americans at that time. Other points also concur with the main idea and make the theory of the connection plausible. Much evidence to support this claim can be found in the wording of the Constitution itself. Even the Preamble has an important idea that arose from the Revolutionary period. The first line of the Preamble states, We the People of the United States... ." This implies that the new government that was being formed derived its sovereignty from the people, which would serve to prevent it from becoming corrupt and disinterested in the people, as the framers believed Britain’s government had become. If the Bill of Rights is considered, more supporting ideas become evident. The First Amendment’s guarantee of religious freedom could have been influenced by the colonial tradition of relative religious freedom. This tradition was clear even in the early colonies, like Plymouth, which was formed by Puritan dissenters from England seeking religious freedom. Roger Williams, the proprietor of Rhode Island, probably made an even larger contribution to this tradition by advocating and allowing complete religious freedom. William Penn also contributed to this idea in Pennsylvania, where the Quakers were tolerant of other denominations. In addition to the tradition of religious tolerance in the colonies, there was a tradition of self-government and popular involvement in government. Nearly every colony had a government with elected representatives in a legislature, which usually made laws largely without interference from Parliament or the king. Jamestown, the earliest of the colonies, had an assembly, the House of Burgesses, which was elected by the property owners of the colony. Maryland developed a system of government much like Britain’s, with a representative assembly, the House of Delegates, and the governor sharing power. The Puritan colony in Massachusetts originally had a government similar to a corporate board of directors with the first eight stockholders, called freemen" holding power. Later, the definition of freemen" grew to

The Mandan Indians

1999-12-04T13:00:00-05:00

The Mandan Indians were a small, peaceful tribe located at the mouth of the Knife River on the Missouri near present day Bismarck, North Dakota. The Mandan were most known for their friendliness and their homes, called earth lodges. The women of the Mandan tribe tended their gardens, prepared food, and maintained lodges while the men spent their time hunting or seeking spiritual knowledge. The Mandan Indians performed many ceremonies such as the Buffalo Dance and the Okipa Ceremony that have been the center of great interest to many historians. The Mandan are also an important part of history because Lewis and Clark spent their first winter with these people and met Sacagawea, who helped guide them for the rest of their journey west. Mandan villages were the center of the social, spiritual, and economic lives of the Mandan Indians. Villages were strategically located on bluffs overlooking the river for defense purposes, limiting attacks to one land approach. The Mandan lived in earth lodges, which are extremely large, round huts that are 15 feet high and 40-60 feet in diameter. Each hut had a vestibule entrance, much like the pattern of an Eskimo igloo, and a square hole on top, which served as a smokestack. Each earth lodge housed 10-30 people and their belongings, and villages contained 50-120 earth lodges. The frame of an earth lodge was made from tree trunks, which were covered with criss-crossed willow branches. Over the branches they placed dirt and sod, which coined the term earth lodge. This type of construction made the roofs strong enough to support people on nights of good weather. The floors of earth lodges were made of dirt and the middle was dug out to make a bench around the outer edge of the lodge. Encompassing the village were stockades of poles as tall as six feet high to prevent enemy attacks. In the middle of a Mandan village was a large, circular, open space that was called the central plaza. In the middle of the plaza was a sacred cedar post that represented the Lone Man, a hero to the Mandan. At the North end of the plaza was the medicine or ceremonial lodge. The arrangement of earth lodges around the central plaza represented the social status of each

New Deal America

1999-12-02T13:00:00-05:00

The stock market crash of 1929 helped launch the United States and many other nations into the worst economic depression in history. The severity of the Great Depression called for federal government programs to protect the general welfare of citizens. The New Deal programs created by Franklin D. Roosevelt provided the framework for the welfare state that still serves as a basis for American public policy. All aspects of American society suffered during the Great Depression. By 1932, there were thirteen million people unemployed. There was no security for the millions who lost all of their savings in the bank failure or stock market crash. Volunteer organizations attempted to help the needy, but their resources were simply not adequate (Madaras and SoRelle 218). Hope seemed non-existent. Americans had never seen such a severe depression. They could not look to history for guidance. The New Deal was Roosevelt’s attempt to restore the economy. His willingness to act decisively and experiment with new policies set him apart from previous presidents. He often said, “I have no expectation of making a hit every time I come to bat. What I seek is the highest possible batting average”(Tindall and Shi 1238). In the first years of Roosevelt’s term he worked hard to empower the federal branch. The New Deal set the precedent for 20th century liberalism. The first order of business for the Roosevelt administration was financial reform. Banking is a crucial aspect of capitalism and Roosevelt was very aware of this fact. On his second day in office, Roosevelt called Congress to meet in a special session. The outcome was the Emergency Banking Relief Act, which permitted stable banks to reopen and provided managers to those who remained in trouble. The Glass-Steagall Act separated commercial and investment banking and created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. These actions all helped restore banking confidence within American people. Roosevelt ensured that it was safer to “keep your money in a reopened bank than under the mattress”(Tindall and Shi 1238). After accomplishing this task, the new administration was ready to solve other problems. Other financial programs included the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), and the Agriculture Adjustment Administration (AAA). The SEC functioned in regulating the stock and bond markets. The NIRA and AAA were aimed at recovery through regulation. The NIRA played a big role in restoring faith

German Immigration to the Midwest

1999-11-20T13:00:00-05:00

German Immigration: A story told by the ghosts of the past "The day I left home, my mother came with me to the railroad station.When we said goodbye, she said it was just like seeing me go into my casket, I never saw her again." So is the story of Julia B. from Germany and many others who left their life and love for a chance of happiness in a new country. This is the story of the German immigrants in 1880-1930 who risked everything on a dream of better things. What caused the German immigration to Ameica between 1870-1930? In this paper I'll answer that question plus: what caused the movement, what happined to them when they arrived, and how did they adapt. I'll also tell some of the more gritty stuff by using intimate and detailed quotes used by many real immigrants who came to America anywhere from 1880 to 1930. As you read this, be prepared to learn what really happened to these immigrants and why the streets were paved with anything but gold. Today, many Germans live throughout the U.S.; especially in the mid-west. More likely then not, they came here in the late 1800's- 1900's. This would be because of the many revolutions in the 1860's and the poverty that almost always follows war. In one 20 year span in the late 1800's Germany went to war at least 7 times taking on neighboring countries such as: Austria, France, Belgium and Russia. Like I said, much money was spent on the war effort in Germany. People were taxed heavily just to buy bullets for the army. Through all this, word was spread like wild fire through Germany that a new country in the west across the water was offering freedom and a promise of happiness for anyone who would make the long journey to the new country: America. So with somewhat heavy hearts, many men and women left their families behind to journey to America in hopes of something greater. For many, the road to America was a hard one. Most of the emigrants were very poor and had to hitchhike or walk the long miles to the coast just to be able to get on the boat to America. Sometimes it would take months just to save up enough money to pay for rides out of Germany, expensive passports, and to pay for the boat fare and it

How Mercantilism Helped to Shape the American Nation

1999-11-19T13:00:00-05:00

In the Middle Ages, the definition of wealth was based on the amount of productive land. According to this definition, France was the wealthiest and therefore the most powerful of the European nations. During the sixteenth century the definition of wealth began to change. As the ability to conduct profitable foreign trade increased, so did the amount of cash. Thus, the new definition of wealth came to mean the gain of cash or specie. Specie included gold, silver, or bullion. The wealthiest nation became the one with the most cash, and therefore, the most powerful nation. As the redefining of wealth took hold, there was an increased desire and ability to conduct foreign trade on a larger scale as cash became the new medium of exchange in contrast to bartering. Mercantilism began to take hold of the countries of Europe. Mercantilism was characterized by the governmental regulation of industries, trade, and commerce. This was especially true with foreign trade, and was determined more by national aims rather than individual or local interests. This new quest for trade began the Age of Expansion in the early fourteen hundreds. This era ushered in a search for new sources of revenues, and focus turned toward the colonization of the New World. The Portuguese, Spanish, and English directed many efforts of colonization and development toward this new land in an attempt to establish themselves as the economic leaders of the world. As mercantilism began to change, so did the power flux of the European countries. Thus began the shaping of North America as we know it. The Age of Expansion brought many changes to medieval Europe. During this period, the countries of Europe began to look beyond their borders. In Europe, there was nowhere to grow. This being the case, the only place to turn was west. Portugal came into existence in the early 1400's. It is a small country bordered on one side by the sea, and by Spain on the other. Out of necessity the Portuguese became the masters of the sea. They began to acquire a great knowledge of the sea and advanced in navigation, sailing, and map-making. They also founded an academy of navigation in Lisbon. In the early 1400's, the Portuguese began exploratory voyages. The Portuguese wanted to establish themselves in large-scale international trade. The four things most desired by the people of Europe were spices, sugar, precious metals, and

War of 1812

1999-11-17T13:00:00-05:00

War of 1812, conflict between the United States and Great Britain from 1812 to 1815. Fought over the maritime rights of neutrals, it ended inconclusively. Background Over the course of the French revolutionary and the Napoleonic wars between France and Great Britain (1793-1815), both belligerents violated the maritime rights of neutral powers. The United States, endeavoring to market its own produce, was especially affected. To preserve Britain's naval strength, Royal Navy officers impressed thousands of seamen from U.S. vessels, including naturalized Americans of British origin, claiming that they were either deserters or British subjects. The United States defended its right to naturalize foreigners and challenged the British practice of impressment on the high seas. Relations between the two nations reached a breaking point in 1807 when the British frigate Leopard fired on the USS Chesapeake in American territorial waters and removed, and later executed, four crewmen. In addition, Britain issued executive orders in council to blockade the coastlines of the Napoleonic empire and then seized vessels bound for Europe that did not first call at a British port. Napoleon retaliated with a similar system of blockades under the Berlin and Milan decrees, confiscating vessels and cargoes in European ports if they had first stopped in Britain. Collectively, the belligerents seized nearly 1500 American vessels between 1803 and 1812, thus posing the problem of whether the United States should go to war to defend its neutral rights. Americans at first prepared to respond with economic coercion rather than war. At the urging of President Thomas Jefferson, Congress passed the Embargo Act of 1807, prohibiting virtually all U.S. ships from putting to sea. Subsequent enforcement measures in 1808-1809 also banned overland trade with British and Spanish possessions in Canada and Florida. Because the legislation seriously harmed the U.S. economy and failed to alter belligerent policies, it was replaced in 1809 by the Non-Intercourse Act, which forbade trade with France and Britain. In 1810 Macon's Bill No. 2 reopened American trade with all nations, but stipulated that if one belligerent repealed its antineutral measures, the United States would then impose an embargo against the other. In August Napoleon announced the repeal of the Berlin and Milan decrees on the understanding that the United States would also force Britain to respect its neutral rights. Although Napoleon continued to seize American vessels in French ports, President James Madison accepted his statements as proof that French antineutral decrees had been

Progressive Historians

1999-11-16T13:00:00-05:00

One must decide the meaning of "progressive historiography." It can mean either the history written by "progressive historians," or it can mean history written by historians of the Progressive era of American history and shortly after. The focus that was chosen for this paper is more in keeping with the latter interpretation, if for no other reason than it provides a useful compare-and-contrast "control" literature. The caveat is this: the focus of this report is on the predominant question of the historiographical period: was the war a revolution or a war for independence? One could choose many other questions to argue, questions that historians have for years disputed about the revolution, but there are a number of reasons why this report was chosen for this particular assignment; the two best follow. First, it is an old and time-honored question that professors and instructors have posed to their students for years; of pre-Civil War historiographical questions, it is perhaps second only in fashion during the last twenty to twenty-five years to the Jefferson-Hemmings paternity controversy. Second, the revolution-or-independence question is one of those which must be answered through interpretation. A case cannot be made that is so utterly conclusive as to exclude all others; it is that very fact that makes history at once so frustrating and so fascinating. What better way could there be to look at the writings of a specific school of historians? Therefore, in the pursuit of "personal truth," we must proceed... Perhaps the most famous of all progressive historians is Frederick Jackson Turner. His most famous argument is not devoted strictly to the American Revolution, but instead to the effects of the American frontier. In a sentence, his argument is that the frontier was the chief determinant in American history. This is not to say that Turner did not write about the war; he did, in his seminal work, "The Frontier in American History," there are discussions of the frontier's effect on the coming of the revolution. It is worth noting, before exploring Turner's arguments, that the frontier in this period was only about one hundred miles from the Atlantic coast. Of course, as the period under scrutiny approaches the war chronologically, the frontier moves away from the ocean. But it is important to remember that Turner defines the Jamestown of Captain John Smith in 1607 as the frontier in its initial stage. So, in this

Comparison of Martin Luther King, Jr and Malcom X

1999-11-06T13:00:00-04:00

They were black men who had a dream, but never lived to see it fulfilled. One was a man who spoke out to all humanity, but the world was not yet ready for his peaceful words. "I have a dream, a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed... that all men are created equal." (Martin Luther King) The other, a man who spoke of a violent revolution, which would bring about radical change for the black race. "Anything you can think of that you want to change right now, the only way you can do it is with a ballot or a bullet. And if you're not ready to get involved with either one of those, you are satisfied with the status quo. That means we'll have to change you." (Malcom X) While Martin Luther King promoted non-violence, civil rights, and the end to racial segregation, a man of the name of Malcom X dreamed of a separate nation. Martin Luther King, Jr. was the conscience of his generation. A Southerner, a black man, he gazed upon the great wall of segregation and saw that the power of love could bring it down. From the pain and exhaustion of his fight to free all people from the bondage of separation and injustice, he wrung his eloquent statement of what America could be. (Ansboro, pg.1) An American clergyman and a Nobel Peace Prize winner, he was one of the principle leaders of the American Civil Rights Movement and a prominent advocate of nonviolent protest. King's challenges to segregation and racial discrimination in the 1950's and 1960's, helped convince many white Americans to support the cause of civil rights in the United States. After his assassination in 1968, King became the symbol of protest in the struggle for racial justice. ("King, Martin Luther, Jr.," pg. 1) In 1964, Malcom X founded an organization called "The Muslim Mosque, Inc. In an interview conducted by A.B. Spellman on March 19, 1964, Malcom speaks of his goals for this organization. "The Muslim Mosque, Inc. will have as its religious base the religion of Islam, which will be designed to propagate the moral reformations necesary to up the level of the so-called Negro community by eliminating the vices and other evils that destroy the moral fiber of the community. But the political philosophy of the Muslim Mosque

Whitewater vs. Watergate.

1999-10-25T14:00:00-04:00

Whitewater vs. Watergate. Both are political sandals that have rocked the nation. As Watergate unraveled, many of Nixon's dirty tactics were learned, including assorted lists of enemies (a number of which became targets of IRS tax audits), wiretapping, political sabotage, burglary, blackballing, and smear campaigns. Similarly, as Whitewater unfolded, the scandal appeared to involve more than just an illegal loan. It touched on possible hush money paid to witnesses and includes the acquisition of more than 900 confidential FBI files on Bush and Reagan appointees. In many aspects, the two are very similar. They are alike in the cover-ups they both produced. But they still are about two totally different events. Each of these scandals is associated with a central criminal event and both involved a web of political intrigue.1 First, what were Whitewater and Watergate? Whitewater started as a land development of riverfront property in Arkansas in the 1980s. The Clintons received a large share of the development without putting up any money. The development went bad, so additional capital was needed. There is evidence and testimony suggesting that this cash was obtained illegally from the federal government and never paid back. As for Watergate - though it was revealed by the Senate Watergate committee as an unprecedented abuse of presidential power that was extremely dangerous to the country, it is remembered 25 years later as a strange and unsuccessful burglary in the Watergate office building by people linked to the reelection committee of Nixon. But Watergate was so much more than a political burglary. The Senate hearings showed Watergate was composed of constant criminality by the Nixon White House, and was driven by an extreme commitment to maintain control of power by any means, including criminal conduct. It included the break-in of a psychiatrist's office for the purpose of smearing Daniel Elsberg - the leaker of the Pentagon Papers; the misuse of the IRS and other federal agencies to punish those on the president's "enemies list"; the illegal wiretapping of journalists and members of Nixon's own administration; and the purposeful editing of government documents to enhance a political agenda.2 Many similarities come up when discussing Whitewater and Watergate. The scandals may be separated by two decades, but much irony is evident when they are compared. For example, in 1974, Hillary Rodham was employed as a lawyer by the House Judiciary Committee's impeachment inquiry, along with Bernard Nussbaum, former chief counsel

Columbus the Villain

1999-10-21T14:00:00-04:00

In 1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue. And, when he reached his destination he killed, raped and enslaved innocent natives. Was Columbus a villain? The answer to that question, in my opinion, would be yes. Christopher Columbus was a cruel, self-centered, delusional man who does not deserve to be praised for the discovery of

Early north American Colonies

1999-10-19T14:00:00-04:00

With the General success of the Jamestown colony, the idea of having more people sent to the new

The Hopi Indians

1999-10-14T14:00:00-04:00

In the southwestern United States, above northern Arizona, are three mesas. The mesas create the home for the Hopi Indians. The Hopi have a deeply religious, isolated, tribal culture with a unique history. The Hopi stress group cooperation. The tribe is organized around a clan system. In a clan system, all the members consider themselves relatives. The clans form a social glue that has held the Hopi villages together. Clan membership provides a singular Hopi identity. The Hopi have a highly developed belief system which contains many gods and spirits. Ceremonies, rituals, dances, songs, and prayers are celebrated in year-round. The Hopi believed they were led to the arid southwestern region of America by their creator, because he knew they had the power to evoke rain with power and prayer. Consequently, the Hopi are connected to their land, its agricultural cycles and the constant quest for rainfall, in a religious way. The religious center of the community is the kiva, which is an underground room with a ladder protruding above the roof. The kiva is very important for several reasons. From the kiva, a connection is made with the center of the earth. Also, the kiva is symbolic for the emergence to this world. The room would represent the underworld and the ladder would represent the way to the upper world. In fact, a room is kept in the house to store ceremonial objects. A sacred ear of corn protects the room and symbolizes the ancestry of the family members. Kachinas are also a focal point of the religion. For a Hopi, they signify spirits of ancestors, dieties of the natural world, or intermediaries between man and gods. The Hopi believe that they are the earth's caretakers, and with the successful performance of their ceremonial cycle, the world will remain in balance, the gods will be happy and rain will come. Because they think of their crops as gifts, the Hopi Indians live in harmony with the environment. Art is also used for ritualistic purposes. Men's loincloths were painted and decorated with tassels to symbolize falling rain. Men also wore elaborate costumes that include special headdresses, masks, and body paints during ritual ceremonies and dances. The Hopi follow a seasonal sense of time. Depending on the season, different preparations were used for collecting the rain. Droughts required the Hopis to adopt new farming methods that are still in use today. An example

Freedom in the United States

1999-10-12T14:00:00-04:00

No other democratic society in the world permits personal freedoms to the degree of the United States of America. Within the last sixty years, American courts, especially the Supreme Court, have developed a set of legal doctrines that thoroughly protect all forms of the freedom of expression. When it comes to evaluating the degree to which we take advantage of the opportunity to express our opinions, some members of society may be guilty of violating the bounds of the First Amendment by publicly offending others through obscenity or racism. Americans have developed a distinct disposition toward the freedom of expression throughout history. The First Amendment clearly voices a great American respect toward the freedom of religion. It also prevents the government from "abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances." Since the early history of our country, the protection of basic freedoms has been of the utmost importance to Americans. In Langston Hughes' poem, "Freedom," he emphasizes the struggle to enjoy the freedoms that he knows are rightfully his. He reflects the American desire for freedom now when he says, "I do not need my freedom when I'm dead. I cannot live on tomorrow's bread." He recognizes the need for freedom in its entirety without compromise or fear. I think Langston Hughes captures the essence of the American immigrants' quest for freedom in his poem, "Freedom's Plow." He accurately describes American's as arriving with nothing but dreams and building America with the hopes of finding greater freedom or freedom for the first time. He depicts how people of all backgrounds worked together for one cause: freedom. I selected Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451 as a fictitious example of the evils of censorship in a world that is becoming illiterate. In this book, the government convinces the public that book reading is evil because it spreads harmful opinions and agitates people against the government. The vast majority of people accept this censorship of expression without question and are content to see and hear only the government's propaganda. I found this disturbing yet realistic. Bradbury's hidden opposition to this form of censorship was apparent throughout the book and finally prevailed in the end when his main character rebelled against the practice of burning books. Among the many forms of protests are pickets, strikes, public speeches and rallies.

The History of the Ku Klux Klan

1999-10-11T14:00:00-04:00

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is one of America's oldest and most feared groups. Driven by the dream of a world with only one master race, the KKK often uses violence and moves above the law to promote their cause. They didn't start of violent, or to promote white supremacy. They have been in the shadows for over 130 years and continue to thrive in America's society today. The Ku Klux Klan began almost accidentally during the reconstruction period after the civil war in the Southern United States. The southern people had suffered greatly from the effects of the great war. Many of them lost their homes and plantations. Many also lost friends and loved ones to the war. The people needed a release from the sorrow of everyday life. In 1865, six men from a small town in Tennessee accidentally began what has grown to be the largest and most feared "hate group" in the country. The men decided to make a club to help release the stress of the times. The men were all poor and could not afford to make gowns or great costumes for the group, so they decided to use linens. They wore the linens over their backs and put pillowcases on their heads. They also draped the linens over their horses. The Ku Klux Klan was going to ride for the first time. In the beginning, the men wanted to do nothing more than play pranks on people. However, the people were more frightened than they were cheered up. They soon realized what they could do with these fear tactics. The South had turned into a place that was no longer theirs. The slaves were now free (many of these men were slave owners) and carpetbaggers were coming from the North to take advantage of the southern people. They saw the opportunity to set back the South to what it had been. The KKK soon began to ride through political rallies of the carpetbaggers. People often fled the rallies out of fear. Word quickly spread across the South about these masked men. Many people loved the idea and wanted to be involved. The Klan quickly grew. A leader was soon needed to control the large group. Their first choice was Southern General Robert E. Lee. Although he supported the group and its cause, he was very ill and could not handle the task. Their

A Testament of Hope - Martin Luther King

1999-10-07T14:00:00-04:00

"Letter from Birmingham Jail" is a clearly written essay that explains the reasons behind, and the methods of nonviolent civil disobedience, and gently expresses King's disappointment with those who are generally supportive of equal rights for African-Americans. Martin Luther King, more than any other figure, shaped American life from the mid-'50s to the late '60s. This was a time when large numbers of Americans, barely recognized as such by sanctioned power, dared to dream of what the country could be at its best, in the face of what often was its worst. For example, in December, 1955, days after Montgomery civil rights activist Rosa Parks refused to obey the city's rules mandating segregation on buses, a bus boycott was launched and King was elected as president of the newly formed Montgomery Improvement Association. As the boycott continued through 1956, King gained national prominence as a result of his exceptional oratorical skills and personal courage. Despite attempts to suppress the movement, Montgomery buses were desegregated in December 1956, after the United States Supreme Court declared Alabama's segregation laws unconstitutional. King's leadership took place during the most tumultuous period in America's recent past. Under his guidance, the unfathomable goal of abolishing federal and state-sanctioned segregation and discrimination was accomplished in only a few short years. King's factual and reasoned approach is intended to win his adversaries over by appealing to their consciences. King works with a rhetorical tradition not only because it is effectual but also because it resonates with the deepest aspect of his calling which was to spread the gospel of brotherhood and justice (152). From his peaceful persuasion, to imaginative solutions in changing times to the power of hope, optimism, nonviolence strategy, and finally to the need for a great dream, these valuable applications are comprehensive instruments for taking courageous action under even the most difficult of circumstances. Above all, King follows his method of careful reasoning and is convinced that his arguments will persuade his audience (153). King was asked by the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to aid in the struggle for civil rights in Birmingham, Alabama. Thus, he was there because injustice was present (154). He was not content with a system that saw his people or people of any color, as second class citizens. He set out to bring equality for people everywhere. So often they had become victims of broken promise (155). As a result, he was

The Three Most Significant Events in U.S. History

1999-09-28T14:00:00-04:00

The Revolution resulting in America was the most significant event in American History. This country would not be here without it. The Revolution led to an establishment of a constitution and a new foundation to start a country. We would still be part of England had we not had the Revolution. The constitution set up a basis upon which the most powerful nation in the world would grow. The Civil War is also one

Comparison of Colonies

1999-09-28T14:00:00-04:00

There were various reasons why the American Colonies were established. The three most important themes of English colonization of America were religion, economics, and government. The most important reasons for colonization were to seek refuge, religious freedom, and economic opportunity. To a lesser degree, the colonists sought to establish a stable and progressive government. Many colonies were founded for religious purposes. While religion was involved with all of the colonies, Massachusetts, New Haven, Maryland, and Pennsylvania were established exclusively for religious purposes. Massachusetts's inhabitants were Puritans who believed in predestination and the ideal that God is perfect. Many Puritans in England were persecuted for their nihilist beliefs in England because they felt that the Church of England, led by the Kind, did not enforce a literal enough interpretation of the Bible. Persecution punishment included jail and even execution. To seek refuge, they separated to go to Holland because of its proximity, lower cost, and safer passage. However, their lives in Holland were much different than that of England. The Separatists did not rebel against but rather preferred the English culture. They did not want their children to be raised Dutch. Also, they felt that Holland was too liberal. Although they enjoyed the freedom of religion, they decided to leave for America. Pilgrims, or sojourners, left for America on The Mayflower and landed in Cape Cod in 1626. They had missed their destination, Jamestown. Although the climate was extremely rocky, they did not want to move south because of their Puritan beliefs. They thought that everything was predestined, and that they must have landed on this rocky place for a reason. They moved slightly north to Plymouth Rock in order to survive more comfortably. Also because of their Puritan beliefs, they had good relations with the Native Americans. Their pacifist nature led the Indians to help with their crops. In thanks, the Pilgrims celebrated the first thanksgiving in 1621. A second group of Puritans in England, the Massachusetts Bay Company, came to Massachusetts for more economically motivated purposes due to their non-minimalist beliefs. New Haven and Connecticut were two other colonies founded exclusively for Religious purposes. Many of the Separatists in Massachusetts felt that the religion was too liberal inside of the colony. They felt that the beliefs were not being enforced enough and that the people were not living through literal interpretations of the Bible. These Separatists further separated themselves from

Government of Colonies

1999-09-28T14:00:00-04:00

The government in Massachusetts began with the Mayflower Compact, an agreement signed by the Pilgrims pledging that they would set up a theocracy, a political system headed by the clergy. In the compact, they also pledged loyalty to support and follow England. Seven years later, the Massachusetts Bay Company, under John Winthrope, coming for economic and religious reasons, set up a general court. This type of government started with 18 elected freemen, or white, male, wealthy, land-owning puritans. This government had many problems. The fact that only 18 people were representing the mass of colonists in Massachusetts caused misrepresentation of the majority of the colony. The elected freemen made decisions that looked to their own interests rather than to the good of the colony. Also, this general court only met four times a year, which is far too little to get any important, every day decisions made. Other colonies with a unicameral, or one house assembly, government include New Jersey and New York. New Jersey, before 1702, was proprietary; the business owners made decisions. This type of government is an autocracy. After 1702, the King of England appointed a governor and council, and there was one house of elected freemen. New York, much like New Jersey, was a one-house government that consisted of a powerful governor and a council of elected freemen. Two other colonies, Maryland and New Haven, had bicameral, or two housed, governments. In Maryland, the governor was appointed by the King and was therefore loyal to England. Only freemen could be in these two houses, but there was more representation due to higher numbers of representatives. This was much like New Haven, which had a bicameral government as well. New Haven had a Constitution called the "Fundamental Orders." It stated that the 7 officials, solely from the church, were only to meet twice a year. Although the meeting times became even more drastically spaced apart, all free men could vote under this government. The fact that one did not have to be a member of the church to vote showed that the government was beginning to break away from theocracy and move closer to democracy. The furthest developed government, in theory, was that of the Carolinas. A man named Berkeley obtained the land as a proprietor from King Charles. The Fundamental Constitution was set up as a balance between aristocracy and democracy. When the King gave the land

How western civiliztion would be differnt if Columbus had not discovered America

1999-09-23T14:00:00-04:00

"How would western civilization be different if Christopher Columbus had not discovered America?" Many circumstances led to Christopher Columbus' discovery of America in 1492. He was born in the port city of Genoa, Italy. He learned the skills of seamanship from working on the sardine fishing fleets. It is also probable that his father owned his own coastal schooner used for trading wool. He had no formal education, which forced him to work in the field of sea navigation. In 1476, Columbus became a chart maker in Lisbon. Any other career he may have chosen, could have prevented him from attempting to find a western sea route from Europe to Asia. America would be very different today, if not discovered by Christopher Columbus. I believe someone

From Oppressed Slaves to Champion Soldiers

1999-09-14T14:00:00-04:00

This is just a small example of the doubt and hatred that was bestowed on the African American soldiers. However, during the war, they proved themselves to be brave and courageous men on and off the battlefield on many occasions. Despite deep prejudices and harsh criticisms from the white society, these men were true champions of patriotism. The cause of the Civil War was tension between the North and the South. The sectional division between the areas began in colonial times, largely resulting from geographical differences. The South was ideal for growing tobacco due to the warm climate and the fertile soil. Plantations brought in black slaves from Africa to provide most of the labor required for growing the crop. In time, other plantation crops such as cotton, sugar cane, indigo, and sugar beets were to thrive in the South. "By the onset of the Civil War, 2.4 million slaves were engaged in cotton production" (Long 16). A rural way of life that supported an agrian economy based on slave labor was quickly established in the South. The North, however, was a cooler, rockier climate that would not support the development of plantations. As a result, the North's economy came to depend more on trade and industry than on agriculture. This economy supported the growth of cities, although many lived in rural areas during the colonial period. The sectional division between North and South had widened enormously by the mid - 1800's. The United States had expanded all the way to the Pacific Ocean and was rapidly becoming a major industrial and commercial nation. However, industry and commerce were centered in the North. The Northerners welcomed modernization and the constant changes it brought to their way of life. Their ideals included hard work, education, economic independence, and the belief that the community had the right and responsibility to decide whether an action was moral or immoral. While Northerners looked forward to a different and better future, Southerners held the present and past dear. They enjoyed a prosperous agricultural economy based on slave labor and wished to keep their old way of life. By the 1800's, northerners viewed slavery as wrong and began a movement to end it. Even though an antislavery minority existed in the South, most Southerners found slavery to be highly profitable and in time came to consider it a positive good. Such situations as the Compromise of 1850 and

1968

1999-09-14T14:00:00-04:00

"An Indignant Generation." With all its disruptions and rage, the idea of black revolution was something many white Americans could at least comprehend, if not agree with. When rebellion seized their own children, however they were almost completely at a loss. A product of the posts war "Baby Boom," nurtured in affluence and concentrated in increasing numbers on college and university campuses. It was a generation marked by an unusual degree of political awareness and cultural alienation. Some shared with the beat writers and poets of the late fifties, a deep disillusionment with this status quo, a restless yearning for something more than a "realistic" conformity. Others had been aroused by the southern sit-in movement, "The first hint," wore a contemporary, "That there was a world beyond the campus that demanded some kind of personal response. "Not so much ideological as moral, in Jessica Mitford's words, "An Indignant Generation." Although an image of arrogance, even ruthlessness, had followed him from his early days as counsel to a Senate committee investigating labor racketeering, Robert Kennedy had shown a remarkable capacity to understand the suffering of others. More than this, he had demonstrated an untiring commitment to the welfare of those who had gotten little more than the crumbs of the Great American Banquet. In fact, Kennedy Appealed most strongly to precisely those groups most disaffected with American society in nineteen sixty-eight, they believed in him with a passion unmatched for any other national political figure, in part for what he had done, but also for the kind of man he was. The collapse of communications made it impossible to determine the fate of the pacification program, but most assessments were pessimistic. When the communists launched their attacks, the government pulled nearly half of the five hundred and fifty revolutionary development teams out of the hamlets to help defend the cities, along with eighteen of the fifty-one army battalions assigned to protect the pacification teams. In so doing, Saigon abandoned the countryside and dealt the pacification program what many felt was a considerable setback. "There always was a semi vacuum in the countryside," said one United States pacification worker. "Now there's a complete vacuum." By the end of the February, orders have gone out for pacification teams and some troops to return to the hamlets, but progress was slow. Although ninety-five percent of the five thousand RD workers in the Saigon region reported back

Life in New England as opposed to the Chesapeake Bay in the 1600s

1999-09-13T14:00:00-04:00

During the 1600's, many people in the American colonies led very many different lives, some better than others. While life was hard for some groups, other colonists were healthy and happy. Two groups that display such a difference are the colonists of New England and Chesapeake Bay. New Englanders enjoyed a much higher standard of living. This high standard of New England's was due to many factors, including a healthier environment, better family situation, and a high rate of reproduction. First, the inhabitants of the New England area were far healthier. Their clean water supply was a sharp contrast to the contaminated waters of Chesapeake Bay. Air was also fresh and clean in New England. Chesapeake Bay colonists were plagued by disease due to their unsanitary way of life, and New Englanders could expect ten extra years of life because of migrating there in fact, on average, they lived to be nearly 70, close to the same life expectancy as today. Second, those who migrated to New England tended to come over as families, quite dissimilar to the single men who flooded Chesapeake Bay. Obviously, a much more stable family life took root in New England. Single women in Chesapeake Bay were few and far between, and the few that were around were not single for long. It was much easier to establish families in New England, where the balance between men and women was much closer to equal. These strong families provided security and made the New England colonists live a more stable life than those who lived to the south in Chesapeake Bay. Finally, partially due to the stable family life of New England, reproduction was much steadier in the north than in the Chesapeake Bay region. New England's women married young, around 20 years of age, and had many children before their child bearing days were over. They could expect to have at least 10 children, with 8 of them surviving. Chesapeake's lack of families-and more importantly-lack of women kept reproduction rates from being up to par. Thus, New England's growth was steady a nd stable, whereas Chesapeake Bay suffered the effects of an extremely low growth rate. Life in colonial America was difficult for all, but more so for some than others. While some colonists struggled to scrape by, some managed to live well and be happy. It is very apparent that health, family, and growth helped New England to

Wounded Knee

1999-09-13T14:00:00-04:00

Wounded Knee was a terrible event in US history. It showed how the US government didn't understand the Native Americans and treated them badly and unfairly. Big Foot was the chief of a subtribe of the Lakota called Miniconjou. He was very old and had pneumonia. He was taking his tribe to the Pine Ridge Reservation in south-western South Dakota. Most of the women and children in Big Foot's tribe were family members of the warriors who had died in the Plains wars. The Indians had agreed to live on small reservations after the US government took away their land. At the Wounded Knee camp, there were 120 men and 230 women and children. At the camp, they were guarded by the US Seventh Cavalry lead by Major Samuel Whitside. During the year 1890 a new dance called the Ghost Dance started among the Sioux and other tribes. The Sioux's Christ figure, Wovoka, was said to have flown over Sitting Bull and Short Bull and taught them the dance and the songs. The Ghost Dance legend was that the next spring, when the grass was high, the Earth would be covered with a new layer of soil, covering all white men. Wild buffalo and horses would return and there would be swift running water, sweet grass, and new trees. All Indians who danced the Ghost dance would be floating in the air when the new soil was being laid down and would be saved. The Ghost Dance was made illegal after the Wounded Knee massacre though. On December 28, 1890 the Seventh Cavalry saw Big Foot moving his tribe and Big Foot immediately put up a white flag. Major Samuel Whitside captured the Indians and took them to an army camp near the Pine Ridge reservation at Wounded Knee. Whitside took Bigfoot on his wagon because it was more comfortable and warmer, and Big Foot was sick. Whitside had orders to take the Indians to a military prison in Omaha the next day, but it never happened. That night Colonel James W. Forsyth took over. The Cavalry provided the Indians with tents that night because it was cold and there was a blizzard coming. The next day, December 29, 1890, the Cavalry gave the Indians hardtack for breakfast. There was a seize of arms and the soldiers took all the Indian's guns away. A medicine man named Yellow Bird told the

The Tennessee Valley Authority

1999-09-13T14:00:00-04:00

Thoreau and King, Jr.

1999-09-13T14:00:00-04:00

There are times throughout the history of the United States when its citizens have felt the need to revolt against the government. There were such cases during the time of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Henry David Thoreau, when there was unfair discrimination against the Afro-American community and Americans refusing to pay poll taxes to support the Mexican War. They used civil disobedience to eventually get legislation to stop the injustice brought against them and their nation. Civil disobedience is defined as refusal to obey civil laws or decrees, which usually takes the form of passive resistance. People practicing civil disobedience break a law because they consider the law unjust, and want to call attention to its injustice, hoping to bring about its withdrawal. Thoreau wrote "Civil Disobedience" in 1849 after spending a night in the Walden town jail for refusing to pay a poll tax that supported the Mexican War. He recommended passive resistance as a form of tension that could lead to reform of unjust laws practiced by the government. He voiced civil disobedience as "An expression of the individual's liberty to create change" (Thoreau 530). Thoreau felt that the government had established order that resisted reform and change. "Action from principle, the perception and the performance of right, changes things and relations; it is essentially revolutionary" (Thoreau 531). Thoreau refused to pay the poll tax because the money was being used to finance the Mexican War. Not only was Thoreau against the war itself but the war was over Texas which was to be used as a slave state. His friend Staples offered to pay the tax for him, but to Thoreau it wasn't the tax he was objected to, it was how the money would be used. He believed strongly against paying money to a war he did not support, and would rather end up in jail than go against his will. A certain passage shows how strong he felt when he said "Your money is your life, why should I haste to give it my money?" (Thoreau 538). It was important to Thoreau to get the public informed about the War, and make people think why it was wrong to support it. Thoreau didn't rally hundreds and thousands of people together to get reactions. Instead he went to jail to protest and wrote his essay "Civil Disobedience". His statements were to get people to think and

Women's Rights 1848-1920

1999-09-13T14:00:00-04:00

Women had it difficult in the mid-1800s to early 1900s. There was a difference in the treatment of men and women. For example:

Married women were legally dead in the eyes of the law

Women were not allowed to vote

Women had to submit to laws when they had no voice in their formation

Married women had no property rights

Women were not allowed to enter professions such as medicine or law

Women had no means to gain an education since no college or university would accept women students

With only a few exceptions

Women were not allowed to participate in the affairs of the church

Women were robbed of their self-confidence and self-respect

Were made totally dependent on men. Then the first Women's Rights Convention was held on July 19 and 20 in 1848. The convention was convened as planned, and over the two-days of discussion, the Declaration of Sentiments and 12 resolutions received agreement endorsement, one by one, with a few amendments. The only resolution that did not pass unanimously was the call for women's authorization. That women should be allowed to vote in elections was impossible to some. At the convention, debate over the woman's vote was the main concern. Women's Rights Conventions were held on a regular basis from 1850 until the start of the Civil War. Some drew such large crowds that people had to be turned away for lack of meeting space. The women's rights movement of the late 19th century went on to address the wide range of issues spelled out at the Seneca Falls Convention. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and women like Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, and Sojourner Truth, who were pioneer theorists, traveled the country lecturing and organizing for the next forty years. Winning the right to vote was the key issue, since the vote would provide the means to accomplish the other reforms. The campaign for woman's right to vote ran across continous opposition that it took 72 years for the women and their male supporters to win. During the Women's Rights Movement, women faced incredible obstacles to win the American civil right to vote, which was later won in 1920. There were some very important women involved in the Women's Right Movement. Esther Morris, who was the first woman to hold a judicial position, who led the first successful state campaign for woman's right to vote, in 1869. Abigail Scott Duniway, the leader of the successful fight in the early 1900s. Ida

Trail Of Tears

1999-07-02T14:00:00-04:00

On September 15, 1830, at Little Dancing Rabbit Creek, the Chiefs of the Choctaw Nation and representatives of the U.S. met to discuss the impact of a bill recently passed by the Congress of the U.S. This bill, with all the same good intentions of those today who believe they know better than we how to conduct our lives, allowed for the removal of all Indian peoples to the West of the Mississippi River. It had been made clear to the Choctaw, that the Whites in Washington cared little for our situation, that either we willingly moved, or by military force we would be moved. We were not ignorant savages, but industrious farmers, merchants, and businessmen of all types. We were educated people, many were Christians. We had an organized system of government and a codified body of law. Some of these people were not even Indians, many strangers and orphans had been taken in over the years. The Chiefs and Warriors signed the treaty, realizing they had no option. For doing this the government officials guaranteed, in the body of the treaty, safe conveyance to our new homes. (Do not forget for a moment that in this treaty, the Choctaw traded 10.3 million acres of land east of the Mississippi for 10.3 acres in Oklahoma and Arkansas that we already owned under previous treaties) Further, it included provisions and monetary annuities, to assist the people to make a new start. One half of the people were to depart almost immediately, the rest the next year. After the signing of the treaty, many saw their land and property sold before their own eyes. The "conveyances" promised turn out to be a forced march. At the point of a gun, the pace killed many of the old, exposure and bad food killed most. Rotten beef and vegetables are poor provisions, even for the idle. Many walked the entire distance without shoes, barely clothed. What supplies were given had been rejected by the whites. This cannot directly blamed on the government, nearly all of this was done by unscrupulous men, interested only in maximizing their profits. They government's fault lies in not being watchful of those taken into their charge. Many of the old and the children died on the road. At each allowed stop, the dead were buried. Hearing of this many escaped. They knew that as they signed the rolls,

The Atomic Bomb

1999-07-02T14:00:00-04:00

Background of the Atomic Bomb It was during the Second World War that the United States became a world power, thanks in a large part to its monopoly on atomic weapons. The atomic bomb is a weapon with great explosive power that results form the sudden release of energy upon the splitting, or fission of the nuclei of such heavy elements as plutonium or uranium. This new destructive force wrecked havoc on two Japanese cities and caused the end of World War II. It also saved thousands of American lives because a ground invasion of Japan was no longer necessary. The decision to create the bombs was that of United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt under a secret military project that was called The Manhattan Project. The Beginnings of the Manhattan Project In 1939, after German dictator Adolf Hitler invaded Poland, German scientists shocked the scientific world when they announced that they had split uranium atoms by man-made means for the first time. Upon hearing this news, a nuclear physicist, Leo Szilard, was convinced that a chain reaction of this process could be used as a weapon to release an awesome burst of power. Szilard knew that this knowledge was now in the wrong hands of the enemy Germans. On a July day in 1939 Szilard and his associate, Edward Teller, drove to the Long Island home of Albert Einstein to alert him of their findings. Einstein used his political influence by immediately writing a letter to President Roosevelt explaining the consequences of the Germans creating an atomic bomb. His letter read, "I believe, therefore, that is my duty to bring to your attention that it may become possible to set up a nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium by which vast amounts of power and large quantities of new-like elements would be generated. A single bomb of this type, carried by a boat and exploded in a port, might very well destroy the whole port, together with some of the surrounding territory." Two months passed before Roosevelt finally read the letter. He ordered a committee of scientists and military officers to meet Szilard and Teller to determine whether America was capable of building a nuclear bomb. In 1940, Szilard and Teller were granted a mere $6,000 to begin experiments in nuclear fission. The duo enlisted the help of the winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1938, Enrico

Prohibition - 'The Noble Experiment'

1999-06-07T14:00:00-04:00

In 1920 congress began what was called "The Noble Experiment". This experiment began with the signing of the eighteenth amendment of the constitution into law. It was titled by society as Prohibition. Websters dictionary defines prohibition as: A prohibiting, the forbidding by law of the manufacture or sale of alcoholic liquors. Prohibition can extend to mean the foreboding of any number of substances. I define it as a social injustice to the human race as we know it. Prohibition was designed to rid the country of businesses that manufactured, sold, and or distributed alcoholic beverages. The eighteenth amendment made it a violation of the constitution to do and of the before mentioned. This was a crime punishable up to the Supreme Court. The original idea was that Americans as a whole were unhealthy, there was too much crime and corruption, and that people were being burdened by excess taxes that poorhouses and prisons were creating. What happened? The cheap alcohol being illegally produced killed more Americans, crime and corruption went up, taxes were raised to fund the law enforcement needed to enforce prohibition, and the prisons became overcrowded. Some would have you believe that crime decreased during prohibition. Well, it did. Crime decreased, as a whole, by 37.7% during prohibition. However violent crime and other serious crimes were up. Theft of property was up 13.2%, homicide was up m16.1%, and robbery was up 83.3%. Minor crimes had decreased though- by 50%. Crimes such as malicious mischief, public swearing, vagrancy, etc. (Dr. Fairburn pg 75-80) The prohibition movement did have its fair share of supporters however. The most active in the movement was the Women's Christian Temperance Union. They worked hard in campaigning towards this amendment and gathered, what is now believed today, as to be biased statistics. For example one area that the WCTU attacked was the saloons and in particular the sale of distilled spirits, hard alcohol. The WCTU claimed drinking during prohibition was down 30% as opposed to pre-prohibition. However as a percentage to total alcohol sales the consumption of distilled spirits was up from 50% (pre-prohibition) to an astonishing 89% during prohibition. "Most estimates place the potency of prohibition-era products at 150+ percent of the potency of products produced either before or after prohibition (qtd. In Henry Lee 202) Prohibition did not succeed at all. In order for prohibition to achieve what it was set to do it had to meet

The Roaring Twenties

1999-05-18T14:00:00-04:00

Americans, in the years following the end of World War I found themselves in an era, where the people simply wished to detach themselves from the troubles of Europeans and the rest of the world. During the years of the Twenties, the economy was prosperous, there was widespread social reform, new aspects of culture were established, and people found better ways to improve their lifestyle and enjoy life. The 1920's exemplified the changing attitudes of American's toward foreign relations, society, and leisure activities. Following the end of World War I, many Americans demanded that the United States stay out of European affairs in the future. The United States Senate even refused to accept the Treaty of Versailles which officially ended World War I and provided for the establishment of the League of Nations. The Senate chose to refuse the Treaty in the fear that it could result in the involvement of the United States in future European wars. Americans simply did not wish to deal with, nor tolerate the problems of Europe and abroad. There were many problems running rampant throughout the country following the conclusion of the war. One of the greatest problems which arose was the Red Scare which was seen as an international communist conspiracy that was blamed for various protest movements and union activities in 1919 and 1920. The Red Scare was touched off by a national distrust of foreigners. Many Americas also kept a close eye on the increasing activities of the Klu Klux Klan who were terrorizing foreigners, blacks, Jews and Roman Catholics. Once Americans put the war behind them, they were able to forget the problems of European affairs, and focus on the country, their town, and themselves. Americans found themselves in a period of reform, both socially and culturally. Many feared that morality had crumbled completely. Before World War I, women wore their hair long, had ankle length dresses, and long cotton stockings. In the twenties, they wore short, tight dresses, and rolled their silk stockings down to their knees. They wore flashy lipstick and other cosmetics. Eventually, women were even granted the right to vote with the passing of the 19th Amendment. It was up to this time period that women were not seen as an important aspect in American society. As if rebelling from the previous position of practically non-existence, women changed their clothing, their fashion, and even cut their hair shorter into

McCarthyism and its Effects on America

1999-05-06T14:00:00-04:00

McCarthyism not only destroyed the lives and careers of many Americans but also the innocent image of the country. Senator Joe McCarthy from Wisconsin was the same as any man. But when he cried Communism the world seemed to listen. Following the Cold War between Russia and the United States there came many hardships, such as unemployment and high inflation. These hardships produced a restless society. The society then looked for something or someone to blame (Fried, 39). They found someone to blame. Communists. Throughout the country there was a witch hunt known as the Red Scare. A basic idea was formed: Communism was evil. Anyone who participated in such evil was considered illegitimate and were to be excluded from such things as sharing ideas, and jobs (Reeves, 136). This fear of Communism or anti-Communism as it was called could be described as a type of "virus." When all was calm in America the virus would fade, but the moment a crisis struck, the virus came back stronger than ever (Feuerlicht, 35). Communism was a threat not only for countries overseas but a threat for America and its people. It was a threat on the American way of life, a bruise on the phrase "the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." (Feuerlicht, 45) And McCarthy helped spread this fear. McCarthy and his ways challenged the Bill of Rights. "When free speech or due process are denied to any individual everyone's rights are jeopardized. Today's oppressors may become tomorrow's accursed group." (Feuerlicht, 154) And nothing is guaranteed more than the destruction of America when the freedoms promised by the Bill of Rights are denied (Feuerlicht, 154). McCarthy installed a fear in the people. But people feared tremendously the loss of their jobs. They feared that their political afflictions would reflect on their job status (Reeves, 99). By trying to keep America from becoming a Communist nation, McCarthy and his followers turned the country into an anti - Communist nation. A country that thrived on freedom and was kept in tact by laws would become a country that was moved by fear alone. Laws would hold no meaning and innocent people would be accused (Feuerlicht, 154). Communists were everywhere. But they were hard to identify because Communism was a philosophy. There was no way a person could provide supporting evidence that someone believed in something (Feuerlicht, 154). According to McCarthy there

The Dustbowl of America in the 1930s

1999-04-08T14:00:00-04:00

The Dust Bowl of North America refers to a catastrophe in the early 1930's when vast areas of the Midwestern and Western farm lands of America became wastelands. This occurred due to a series of dry years which coincided with the extension of agriculture in unsuitable lands. Droughts and dust storms caused by poor tillage practices devastated farms and ranches of the Great Plains; therefore, causing a great exodus of its inhabitants to other, more fertile, lands. The problem had become so great that a nation wide effort was made to resolve the problem. Beginning in 1935, extensive efforts were made by both federal and state governments to develop adequate programs for soil conservation and for the rehabilitation of the dust bowl. Eventually, thanks to government aid, farming became possible again in the Dust Bowl; consequently, farmers have learnt many valuable lessons from this dilemma. The European settlers who first arrived at the Great Plains found hardy grasslands that held the fine-grained soil in place in spite of the long recurrent droughts and occasional torrential rains. A large number of the travelers settled down in this area and built farms and ranches. These land uses led to soil exposure and great erosion. The cattle ranches were very profitable for the settlers; unfortunately, this led to overgrazing and degradation of the soil. In addition, farmers began to plow the natural grass cover and plant their own crops. Without the original root systems of the grass to anchor the soil, much of it blew away. The wide row crops were very disastrous because between the crops, the land was kept bare; as a result, this area was exposed to the elements. Also, the nutrients in the soil were used up by the plants faster than they could be replaced. The soil had become exhausted. The Great Plains are a vast expanse of land located in a region east of the Rocky Mountains in North America. Precipitation in the region is sparse because it is found in the rainshadow of the Rockies; as a result, rain is very unpredictable as to when it will fall so farmers had to make due with what they had back in the 1930's. This lack of water created a hard dry soil that was very difficult to cultivate for agricultural purposes. The farmers, however, continued to cultivate the land and eventually disaster struck. The natural elements wreaked

Martin Luther King Jr and Malcolm X

1999-03-31T14:00:00-04:00

Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X grew up in different environments. King was raised in a comfortable middle-class family where education was stressed. On the other hand, Malcolm X came from and underprivileged home. He was a self-taught man who received little schooling and rose to greatness on his own intelligence and determination. Martin Luther King was born into a family whose name in Atlanta was well established. Despite segregation, Martin Luther King's parents ensured that their child was secure and happy. Malcolm X was born on May 19, 1925 and was raised in a completely different atmosphere than King, an atmosphere of fear and anger where the seeds of bitterness were planted. The burning of his house by the Ku Klux Klan resulted in the murder of his father. His mother later suffered a nervous breakdown and his family was split up. He was haunted by this early nightmare for most of his life. From then on, he was driven by hatred and a desire for revenge. The early backgrounds of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King were largely responsible for the distinct different responses to American racism. Both men ultimately became towering icons of contemporary African-American culture and had a great influence on black Americans. However, King had a more positive attitude than Malcolm X, believing that through peaceful demonstrations and arguments, blacks will be able to someday achieve full equality with whites. Malcolm X's despair about life was reflected in his angry, pessimistic belief that equality is impossible because whites have no moral conscience. King basically adopted on an integrationalist philosophy, whereby he felt that blacks and whites should be united and live together in peace. Malcolm X, however, promoted nationalist and separatist doctrines. For most of his life, he believed that only through revolution and force could blacks attain their rightful place in society. Both X and King spread their message through powerful, hard-hitting speeches. Nevertheless, their intentions were delivered in different styles and purposes. "King was basically a peaceful leader who urged non-violence to his followers. He travelled about the country giving speeches that inspired black and white listeners to work together for racial harmony." (pg. 135, Martin Luther King Jr. and the Freedom Movement) Malcolm X, for the most part, believed that non-violence and integration was a trick by the whites to keep blacks in their places. He was furious at white racism

Native American Women

1999-03-12T13:00:00-05:00

On few subjects has there been such continual misconception as on the position of women among Indians. Because she was active, always busy in the camp, often carried heavy burdens, attended to the household duties, made the clothing and the home, and prepared the family food, the woman has been depicted as the slave of her husband, a patient beast of encumbrance whose labors were never done. The man, on the other hand, was said to be an loaf, who all day long sat in the shade of the lodge and smoked his pipe, while his overworked wives attended to his comfort. In actuality, the woman was the man's partner, who preformed her share of the obligations of life and who employed an influence quite as important as his, and often more powerful. Native Americans established primary relationships either through a clan system, descent from a common ancestor, or through a friendship system, much like tribal societies in other parts of the world. In the Choctaw nation, " Moieties were subdivided into several nontotemic, exogamous, matrilineal 'kindred' clans, called iksa." (Faiman-Silva, 1997, p.8) The Cheyenne tirbe also traced their ancestry through the woman's lineage. Moore (1996, p. 154) shows this when he says "Such marriages, where the groomcomes to live in the bride's band, are called 'matrilocal'." Leacock (1971, p. 21) reveals that "...prevailing opinion is that hunting societies would be patrilocal.... Matrilineality, it is assumed, followed the emergence of agriculture...." Leacock (p. 21) then stated that she had found the Montagnais-Naskapi, a hunting society, had been matrilocal until Europeans stepped in. "The Tanoan Pueblos kinship system is bilateral. The household either is of the nuclear type or is extended to include relatives of one or both parents...." (Dozier, 1971, p. 237) The statuses and roles for men and women varied considerably among Native Americans, depending on each tribe's cultural orientations. In matrilineal and matrilocal societies, women had considerable power because property, housing, land, and tools, belonged to them. Because property usually passed from mother to daughter, and the husband joined his wife's family, he was more of a stranger and yielded authority to his wife's eldest brother. As a result, the husband was unlikely to become an authoritative, domineering figure. Moreover, among such peoples as the Cherokee, Iroquois, and Pueblo, a disgruntled wife, secure in her possessions, could simply divorce her husband by tossing his belongings out of their residence.

The History of the Panama Canal

1999-03-12T13:00:00-05:00

The Panama Canal has been called the big ditch, the bridge between two continents, and the greatest shortcut in the world. When it was finally finished in 1914, the 51-mile waterway cut off over 7,900 miles of the distance between New York and San Francisco, and changed the face of the industrialized world ("Panama Canal"). This Canal is not the longest, the widest, the deepest, or the oldest canal in the world, but it is the only canal to connect two oceans, and still today is the greatest man-made waterway in the world ("Panama Canal Connects). Ferdinand de Lesseps, who played a large role in building the Suez Canal in 1869 (Jones), was the director of the Compagnie Universelle Du Canal Interoceanique de Panama ("Historical Overview"). At first De Lesseps seemed to be "the perfect choice for the Panama task." Though as time went on De Lesseps was found to be "anything but the ideal" (Dolan). As soon as de Lesseps' company took over the canal it was doomed (Jones). De Lesseps was a 74-year-old man who was stubborn, vain, and very opinionated (Considine). Because of his experience with the Suez waterway, De Lesseps thought he was smarter than all the engineers beneath his command (Dolan). De Lesseps overrode all opposition of his sea-level canal due to his very popular reputation. He was sold on the idea of a sea-level canal and would not listen to the ideas of others such as French engineer, Adolphe Godin de Lepinary. De Lepinary's idea was to create two large lakes on either side of the mountains. In order to do this they would have to dam the Chagres River on the Atlantic side and the Rio Grande River on the pacific side (Considine). Although as time went on more than just a poor director held back the finalization of the canal. Disease, death, and rough terrain slowed down the completion of the canal. "The Terrain at the Isthmus was something they had never experienced and had not put a serious study of it, a very grave error" ("Panama Canal Connects"). Mosquitoes were responsible for many deaths. Illnesses such as yellow fever and malaria made "many of the work forces go to the hospitals or in some cases die" ("Panama Canal"). Mosquitoes carried the diseases and when a person got bit he would give a disease to the mosquito and the mosquito would pass it on

History of Railroads

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

Railroads were born in England, a country of dense population, short distances, and large financial resources. In England problems were very different from those in America, which in the early 1800s was a nation of great distances, sparse population, and limited capital. Americans had to learn to build railroads for their own country by actual experience; they could not copy English methods. The first American railroads started from the Atlantic ports of Boston, Mass.; New York City; Philadelphia, Pa.; Wilmington, Del.; Baltimore, Md.; Charleston, S.C.; and Savannah, Ga. Within 20 years four rail lines had crossed the Alleghenies to reach their goal on the "Western Waters" of the Great Lakes or on the tributaries of the Mississippi. Meanwhile other lines had started from west of the mountains,

The Seven-Years War

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

The word "privateer" conjures a romantic image in the minds of most Americans. Tales of battle and bounty pervade the folklore of privateering, which has become a cherished, if often overlooked part of our shared heritage. Legends were forged during the battle for American independence, and these men were understandably glorified as part of the formation of our national identity. The fact of the matter is that the vast majority of these men were common opportunists, if noteworthy naval warriors. The profit motive was the driving force behind almost all of their expeditions, and a successful privateer could easily become quite wealthy. In times of peace, these men would be common pirates, pariahs of the maritime community. Commissioned in times of war, they were respected entrepreneurs, serving their purses and their country, if only incidentally the latter. However vulgar their motivation, the system of privateering arose because it provided a valuable service to thecountry, and indeed the American Revolution might not have been won without their involvement. Many scholars agree that all war begins for economic reasons, and the privateers of the war for independence contributed by attacking the commercial livelihood of Great Britain's merchants. It is ironic that the entire notion of privateering began in Great Britain. In 1649 a frigate named Constant-Warwick was constructed in England for a privateer in the employ of the Earl of Warwick. Seeing how profitable this investment was, a great many of the English peerage commissioned their own privateers. The Seven-Years War saw the proliferation of privateering on both the English and French coasts as each attempted to disrupt their opponent's colonial trade. American investors quickly entered this battle, commissioning ships to prey upon cargo vessels coming to and from French colonial holdings in the Americas. Here began the American privateer heritage, and when the American Revolution began many of these same men viewed the opportunity to profit, and resumed their ventures. The American privateer vessel was a ship "armed and fitted out at private expense for the purpose of preying on the enemy's commerce to the profit of her owners". Not just anyone could be a privateer, however. What distinguished a privateer from a common pirate was a commission, or a letter of marque. These were granted by the government, and were quite easily obtained. The government's benefit was twofold. First, the revolutionary government took a share of the profits from the sale

The American Dream

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

It is the intent of this paper to prove that the "American Dream" can best be explained as a "ciity upon a hill." "Ciity upon a hill" meaning being above and superior over those below. The Civil War, the imperialistic race of the 19th century, the Korean War, the KKK, and the Gulf War are all examples of the "American Dream" of superiority playing a part in American History. Each American has a different idea of this superiority, but nonetheless strive to achieve it, whatever it may be in. The Civil War which split the United States, was a clash of two aspects of approaching the "American Dream" in a young America. Both sides felt their idea's and philosophies were superior to those of the opposing side and therefore would benefit the country more and make it superior. Both North and South wanted to better the country to have it achieve the "American Dream". Unfortunately, each side had a different perspective on how to approach it. Slavery was a major issue, the North against, the South pro. The disagreement on slavery lead to difficulty in the issue of Westward expansion. Both agreed to it, but whether to admit them as free or slave states was where the split occurred. The compromise of 1850 stated that California enters free, and New Mexico and Utah decided on their own which is giving them more state rights in which the South heavily supported. This compromise did not satisfy each side fully. The issue of State rights intensified by the issue of slavery because the Southern states felt they had the right to decide on their own about Slavery without Federal intervention. It seems the Southern states felt that the "American dream" was out of their reach because they felt powerless and inferior with the Central government. When the American revolution was fought to break from Britain, the Southern States thought they would be treated as sovereign and free. With the State's limited power, they felt as if the Federal government would become a monarchy. The Northern States wanted the "American dream" achieved for the whole country to be industrial, anti-slavery, and very federalist. Upon these institutions they planned to make the U.S a superior nation in the world. The South wanted to achieve the same ultimate goal for the U.S but with agricultural, pro- slavery, and states sovereignty institutions. These are the differences between

List of Amendments

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

Amendment I (1791) Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Amendment II (1791) A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. Amendment III (1791) No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Amendment IV (1791) The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Amendment V (1791) No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. Amendment VI (1791) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. Amendment VII (1791) In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the

The Borderlands: 1880 - 1940

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

The time of change in the region called the "borderlands" occurred during the period between 1880 and 1940. The region became urbanized and ended its years of isolation from the rest of the world. In the past the region's economy was based on ranching and farming. As the region became more urbanized the economy changed. The economy did not change equally between the United States and Mexico, the United States' side of the border boomed while Mexico's side did not. The cities that did prosper in region were based on the actions of the United States. Actions that affected the cities in Mexico were Prohibition and the Great depression. Events in the United States were not the only economic factor to effect the region. The Mexican Revolution had great social and economic influence to the region. On November 10 1910, the Mexican Revolution began and did not end until President Diaz was overthrown. The United States and its border towns were heavily involved in the conflict. The fighting was mainly in the north and they need supplies. The majority of the weapons and supplies for the Revolution was brought in the United States. The border cities in the United States became the chief suppliers of guns to the Revolution. This form trade was illegal and mainly done on the Black Market. The legal trade that existed before the Revolution disappeared with the outbreak of war. Mexico had closed the border during the conflict to prevent the supply of arms. The United States had also tried to stop the flow of arms but not successful. Eventually the United States had sent troops to the region when the fighting spilled over the border. The troops stayed in the region after the Mexican Revolution and were an economic boom to the region. The United States at the turn of the century was under going a major social movement. The United States was trying to change its society to a more moral country. The groups involved in the movement consisted of many groups from around the United States. Some of the most notable groups involved in the social reform movement were the churches in the country. They targeted many aspects of life of the normal Americans. The social reforms targeted social ills such as adultery, crime, and lastly, drinking. These groups had large number of followers, and had considerable height in government. The social reformers

Ford Car Company

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

The first piece of material I gathered was a picture via the internet. This picture is of the River Rouge assembly plant in Dearborn, Michigan. This picture shows the manufacturing of the fender for a Ford Motor Company product. It also shows the facilities of the Rouge plant and how the plant it self was state of the art. This plant was the largest of its kind at the time of its construction. The Ford Motor Company at the time was one of the leaders in labor relations. This picture shows the size of the plant as well as the working conditions in the facility. When viewing the photograph you can see the array of pipes and collection devices to aid in the circulation of air and the collection of dust and other by products made in the plant. The next component I found is another picture of the interior of the Rouge plant. This picture is one of many conveyer belts in the plant. This belt is moving engine parts from the engine assembly to the final assembly. Henry Ford was a pioneer in the use of the assembly line in the automobile industry, and the Rouge plant was the ultimate in that use of the assembly line. This photo shows the depth of the plant, being able to manufacture all components of the cars without having to ship parts to or from other locations in the country. The next collection of photographs is of the exterior of the Rouge plant. These photos were obtained from the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. These pictures are of the Rouge during the switch of all production, from the Highland Park plant, to the Rouge. It was also the time that the Model A was beginning production. This collection shows examples of four exterior views of the plant, allude to the many different factories within the Rouge plant. The Rouge was a steel mill, a foundry, a power producer and, an assembly line. This all encompassing idea helped ford relegate all aspects of the production of their product. Along with the exterior, the interior showed the extent of the all encompassing Rouge plant. The interior photographs, which were also care of the Henry Ford Museum, show more factories within the factory. For example, the four photos in this collection display metal forming, and metallurgical operations. These pictures included forging, the blast furnaces, removal of

The Civil Rights in the 1950's and 60's

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

(1) Trumans civil rights committee: In 1947 Trumans Civil Rights Committee recommended laws protecting the right of African Americans to vote and banning segregation on railroads and buses. It also called for a federal law punishing lynching. He issued executive orders ending segregation in the armed forces and prohibiting job discrimination in all government agencies. (2) Brown V. the Board of Education (1954): In 1954 the Supreme Court made one of the most important decisions in its long history. It decided in the case of Brown v. Board Of Education of Topeka that it was unconstitutional for states to maintain separate schools for African American and white children. This case over turned the "Separate but equal" doctrine established in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson back in 1896. (3) Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955): After the supreme court decided to end segregation, African Americans started to speak out more about their racial opinions. In Montgomery, Alabama, a bus boycott ended with a victory for the African Americans. The Supreme Court ruled that the Alabama segregation laws were unconstitutional. During the boycott a young African American Baptist minister, Martin Luther King, Jr. became well known. Throughout the long contest he advised African Americans to avoid violence no matter had badly provoked by whites. Rosa Parks tired of sitting in the back of the bus, and giving up her seat to white men. One weary day she refused to move from the front of the bus, and she became one of history's heroes in the Civil Rights Act movement. (4) The Civil Rights Act: In 1964 congress passed a Civil Rights Act prohibiting racial discrimination in restaurants, theaters, hotels, hospitals, and public facilities of all sorts. This civil rights act also made it easier and safer for Southern Blacks to register and vote. Laws were passed to help poor people improve their ability to earn money, a program to give extra help to children at risk even before they were old enough to go to school, and a program to train school dropouts. (5) The Great Society: These actions were very popular. Johnson easily won the 1964 presidential election and then proposed what he called the Great Society program. This was Johnson's plan. He would work to improve the lives of all people, but especially the poor and the powerless. Programs were aimed at helping every segment in society. (6) Passive Resistance: After Martin Luther King, Jr. successfully

Essay on Colonies

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

The New England and Southern Colonies were both settled largely by the English. By 1700, the regions had evolved into two distinct societies. The southern colonies have characteristics that are the antithesis of the New England colonies attributes. New England was colonized for Freedom of Worship and freedom of political thought. The Southern colonies were developed for freedom of economic opportunity. The New England colonies had aspirations for a distinct society, where they could show their homeland, how a country should be run. The southern colonies had goals for mercantilism, and increasing the prosperity of England. The New England colonies were based on theocracy, where the state forced the people to live and worship in an orthodox way. The southern colonies(Virginia) had a government based on a royal government, where the state was governed by a governor and council named by the king, and an elected assembly chosen by the people. Finally, the New England colonies wanted to establish the colony for religious motives, while the southern colonies were established for economic motives. England and the rebels of England (Pilgrims), made up the New England and southern colonies. "God Almighty in his most holy and wise providence hath so disposed of the condition of mankind, in all times some must be rich, some poor, some high and eminent in power and dignity, other mean and in subjection. Yet we must be knit together in this work as one man."(John Winthrop, A Model of Christian Charity) This statement by John Winthrop, demonstrates importance of religion in the lives of the New England settlers. "We must delight in each other, make others' conditions our own, rejoice together, mourn together, labor and suffer together, always having before our eyes our commission and community in the work, our community as members of the same body." (John Winthrop, A Model of Christian Charity). The use of the word "together" and "community" indicates that the New England settlers were of a communal nature, they were less individualistic than the southern colonies. The New England colonies were based on religious freedom, thus their society was reflected the religion. "These underwritten names are to be transported to Virginia, embarked in the Merchant's Hope, Hugh Weston, Master, per examination by the minister of Gravesend touching upon their conformity to the Church discipline of England, and have taken oaths of allegiance and supremacy:" (Ship's List of Emigrants Bound for Virginia). The use of

Was Colonial Culture Uniquely American?

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

"Was Colonial Culture Uniquely American?" "There were never, since the creation of the world, two cases exactly parallel." Lord Chesterfield, in a letter to his son, February 22nd, 1748. Colonial culture was uniquely American simply because of the unique factors associated with the development of the colonies. Never before had the conditions that tempered the colonists been seen. The unique blend of diverse environmental factors and peoples caused the development of a variety of cultures that were mostly English, part European, and altogether original. The unique conditions, both cultural and environmental, of each colony produced a unique culture for that colony. And while each colony had it's share of groups, the mix of people and their cultures in each colony was not evenly distributed. In some colonies there was a high mix of people, while in others one group dominated. These regional differences caused the colonies not to develop one unique culture, but instead a group of distinctive cultures, each unique, and each regional. The regional differences and cultures among the colonies can be divided into four basic groups. These groups each dominated a different region, but they weren't the only group in their respective region. There were the Puritans of New England, the Quakers of the middle colonies, the Anglicans of the southern colonies, and the Scots-Irish of the Appalachian backcountry (Madaras & Sorelle, 1995). The culture of New England was one unique to New England. The northern colonies of New England were dominated by the Puritans, and settled primarily for religious reasons. The environment of New England consisted of rocky soil, dense forests, and large numbers of fish (Sarcelle, 1965). The culture that developed in New England was appropriate to such conditions. The soil, being rocky, had to be worked constantly and patiently (Sarcelle, 1965). Patience and persistence were trademarks of Puritan ethics. The lush forests provided for a shipbuilding industry , while the fish provided a source of food (Brinkley, 1995). The New Englanders became fishermen, farmers, lumbermen, shipbuilders, and traders (Sarcelle, 1965). To the south of New England were the middle colonies. There the soil was fertile, and the weather more acclimated to farming (Sarcelle, 1965). Rivers flowed west toward the frontier, enabling transportation. The middle colonies, as opposed to the relatively Puritan dominated New England, were very diverse in people. A mixture of Dutch, German, Swedes, English and other smaller groups were present in middle colonial cities such as New York (Higginbotham, 1996). The

The History of Coca-Cola

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

The Coca-Cola company started out as an insignificant one man business and over the last one hundred and ten years it has grown into one of the largest companies in the world. The first operator of the company was Dr. John Pemberton and the current operator is Roberto Goizueta. Without societies help, Coca-Cola could not have become over a 50 billion dollar business. Coca-Cola was invented by Dr. John Pemberton, an Atlanta pharmacist. He concocted the formula in a three legged brass kettle in his backyard on May 8, 1886. He mixed a combination of lime, cinnamon, coca leaves, and the seeds of a Brazilian shrub to make the fabulous beverage(Things go better with Coke 14). Coca-Cola debuted in Atlanta's largest pharmacy, Jacob's Pharmacy, as a five cent non-carbonated beverage. Later on, the carbonated water was added to the syrup to make the beverage that we know today as Coca-Cola. Coca-Cola was originally used as a nerve and brain tonic and a medical elixir. Coca-Cola was named by Frank Robinson, one of Pemberton's close friends, he also penned the famous Coca-Cola logo in unique script. Dr. John Pemberton sold a portion of the Coca-Cola company to Asa Candler, after Pemberton's death the remainder was sold to Candler. Pemberton was forced to sell because he was in a state of poor health and was in debt. He had paid $76.96 for advertising, but he only made $50.00 in profits. Candler acquired the whole company for $2,300(Coca-Cola multiple pages). Candler achieved a lot during his time as owner of the company. On January 31, 1893, the famous Coca-Cola formula was patented. He also opened the first syrup manufacturing plant in 1884. His great achievement was large scale bottling of Coca-Cola in 1899. In 1915, The Root Glass Company made the contour bottle for the Coca-Cola company. Candler aggressively advertised Coca-Cola in newspapers and on billboards. In the newspapers, he would give away coupons for a free Coke at any fountain. Coca-Cola was sold after the Prohibition Era to Ernest Woodruff for 25 million dollars. He gave Coca-Cola to his son, Robert Woodruff, who would be president for six decades(Facts, Figures, and Features Multiple pages). Robert Woodruff was an influential man in Atlanta because of his contributions to area colleges, universities, businesses and organizations. When he made a contribution, he would never leave his name, this is how he became to be known as "Mr. Anonymous." Woodruff

The Writing of the Constitution

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

A constitution is the legal structure of our political system, establishing governmental bodies , determining how their members are selected , and prescribing the rules by which they make their decisions . The nation's founders , fifty-five men , met in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787 to write a new constitution and to form a new government. George Washington was elected chairman of the convention.The founders were all very well-educated. Over half the delegates had collage degrees, which was rare in the North American continent at that time. They also had experience in governing . More than forty of the delegates held high offices in state governments , including three who were governors. The founders believed in the idea that the purpose of government was the protection of individual life, liberty and property. Following the election of George Washington as president of the convention, Governor Edmund Randolph of Virginia presented a draft of a new constitution .The Virginia Plan proposed a two house legislature. A lower house directly elected by the people of the states based on the population , and an upper house elected by the lower house.The congress was to have broad legislative power ,with veto over laws passed by state legislatures .The President and cabinet would be elected by legislature. The national judiciary would be elected by legislature , and their would be a "Council of Revision" with power to veto laws of Congress. Delegates from New Jersey , New York and Delaware did not agree to the Virginia Plan due to the great power delegated to the national government . William Paterson of New Jersey submitted a counterproposal .The New Jersey Plan proposed a one-house legislature, with equal state representation regardless of population. Congress had some legislative power, including levying some taxes and the regulation of commerce.The plan also proposed separate executive and judicial branches , elected by Congress and removable by petition from majority of state governors.The judiciary was appointed by the chief executive .The plan also included the supremacy clause , stating that the Constitution and federal laws would supersede over state constitutions and laws . After several months of debate , Roger Sherman of Connecticut came forward with a compromise.The Connecticut Compromise proposed a two-house legislature , with numerical representation in the directly elected House and equal state representation in the indirectly elected Senate. It also gave Congress broad legislative power, including the power to levy

The Constitution

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

A case for the connection of America's colonial and revolutionary religious and political experiences to the basic principles of the Constitution can be readily made. One point in favor of this conclusion is the fact that most Americans at that time had little beside their experiences on which to base their political ideas. This is due to the lack of advanced schooling among common Americans at that time. Other points also concur with the main idea and make the theory of the connection plausible. Much evidence to support this claim can be found in the wording of the Constitution itself. Even the Preamble has an important idea that arose from the Revolutionary period. The first line of the Preamble states, We the People of the United States... ." This implies that the new government that was being formed derived its sovereignty from the people, which would serve to prevent it from becoming corrupt and disinterested in the people, as the framers believed Britain's government had become. If the Bill of Rights is considered, more supporting ideas become evident. The First Amendment's guarantee of religious freedom could have been influenced by the colonial tradition of relative religious freedom. This tradition was clear even in the early colonies, like Plymouth, which was formed by Puritan dissenters from England seeking religious freedom. Roger Williams, the proprietor of Rhode Island, probably made an even larger contribution to this tradition by advocating and allowing complete religious freedom. William Penn also contributed to this idea in Pennsylvania, where the Quakers were tolerant of other denominations. In addition to the tradition of religious tolerance in the colonies, there was a tradition of self-government and popular involvement in government. Nearly every colony had a government with elected representatives in a legislature, which usually made laws largely without interference from Parliament or the king. Jamestown, the earliest of the colonies, had an assembly, the House of Burgesses, which was elected by the property owners of the colony. Maryland developed a system of government much like Britain's, with a representative assembly, the House of Delegates, and the governor sharing power. The Puritan colony in Massachusetts originally had a government similar to a corporate board of directors with the first eight stockholders, called freemen" holding power. Later, the definition of freemen" grew to include all male citizens, and the people were given a strong voice in their own government. This tradition of religious

FDR and the Great Depression

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00

Critque the efficiency of of FDR's administration at alleviating the suffering of the great

Persian Gulf War-the Feat of the Western Countries

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
On August 2nd, 1990 Iraqi military forces invaded and occupied the small Arab state of Kuwait. The order was given by Iraqi dictatorial president Saddam Hussein. His aim was apparently to take control Kuwait's oil reserves (despite its small size Kuwait is a huge oil producer; it has about 10 per cent of the world's oil reserves ). Iraq accused Kuwait, and also the United Arab Emirates, of breaking agreements that limit oil production in the Middle East. According to Saddam Hussein, this brought down world oil prices severely and caused financial loss of billions of dollars in Iraq's annual revenue. Saddam Hussein had the nearly hopeless task of justifying the invasion. He plead the fact that Kuwait had been part of the Ottoman province of Basra, a city in the south of Iraq. However, the Ottoman province collapsed after World War I and today's Iraqi borders were not created until then. There was also a further and more obvious blunder in a bid to justify this illegal invasion. Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, had namely recognized Kuwaiti independence in 1963. Furthermore, Hussein claimed that Kuwait had illegally pumped oil from the Iraqi oil field of Rumaila and otherwise conspired to reduce Iraq's essential oil income. By invading Kuwait, Iraq succeeded in surprising the entire world. The USA ended her policy of accommodating Saddam Hussein, which had existed since the Iran-Iraq war. Negative attitude toward Iraq was soon a worldwide phenomenon. The United Nations Security Council passed 12 resolutions condemning the invasion. The ultimate decision was to use military force if Iraq did not withdraw unconditionally by January 15, 1991. Then, when the deadline was set, it was time to start preparing for the worst-the war. President George Bush confronted little difficulty in winning Americans' support for the potential war against Iraq. However, the government found it difficult to decide upon and state one overriding reason for going to war. Was it to oppose aggression or was it just to protect global oil supplies? Other powers were more directly concerned as consumers of Persian Gulf oil, but they were not as eager to commit military force, to risk their youth in battle and to pay for the costs of the war. Critics of President Bush continued to maintain that he was taking advantage of the issue of energy supplies in order to manipulate the U. S. public opinion in favor

The Hindenburg

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The Inferno The arrival of the Hindenburg, thirteen hours behind schedule, at Lakehurst, New Jersey, on the evening of May 6, 1937, promised to be routine. The ship had an unblemished safety record on eighteen previous Atlantic crossings. In fact, no passenger had ever lost his life on any commercial airship. Still, because this was the beginning of the most ambitious season yet for airship voyages, reporters, photographers and news reel cameramen had their eyes and lenses focused on the great dirigible as it approached. When disaster struck it was sudden. Without warning flames gushed from within the Hindenburg's hull; thirty-two seconds later the airship lay on the ground, ravaged. Never had the sights and sounds of a disaster in progress been so graphically documented. Within a day, newspaper readers and theater audiences were confronted by fiery images of the Hindenburg. Radio listeners heard the emotional words of newsman Herb Morrison, sobbing into his recorder, "It's burning, bursting into flames, and it's falling on the mooring mast and all the folks. This is one of the worst catastrophes in the world. . . . Oh, the humanity and all the passengers!(Marben 58)" When this floating cathedral, called the Hindenburg, burst into a geyser of flaming hydrogen there was a tremendous impact on the public, although two thirds of the people on board survived. Two theories about why it happened surfaced and this tragedy put an end to the short age of these massive airships. The demise of the Hindenburg had a searing impact on public consciousness that far surpassed the bare statistics of the calamity. Men and women escaped, even from this inferno. One elderly lady walked out by the normal exit as though nothing had happened and was unscratched. A fourteen-year-old cabin boy jumped to the ground into flames and smoke. He was almost unconscious from the fumes when a water-ballast bag collapsed over his head. He got out. One passenger hacked his way through a jungle of hot metal using his bare hands. Another emerged safely, only to have another passenger land upon him and cripple him. One man, at an open window with every chance to jump to safety, went back into the flames to his wife, both died. The final count was 36 dead, including 13 passengers. Nearly two thirds, of the 97 persons on board survived, but that fact was forever obscured, and the name Hindenburg became

Federalist Party

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"Seldom in the nation's history has there been a period so extraordinary in accomplishment as the first decade under the Constitution...." This paper is going to be a step by step evaluation of arguably the most important decade in American History. The time period covered in this paper is 1789-1801. These are the years in which the Federalists had the most influence in the new government. They accomplished an amazing amount in these 12 years. The Federalist Party was one of the first political organizations in the United States. The members of this party supported a strong central government, a large peacetime army and navy, and a stable financial system. Although the first president, George Washington, was not a Federalist, his Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, was the developer and leader of the Federalist party. Hamilton believed in a loose interpretation of the Constitution so that the central government could become more powerful. Also Hamilton, along with the other party members, believed that commerce and manufacturing were more important than agriculture. Financial Dilemma During the first two years of the new federal government the biggest problem was that of raising money. At first the Congress adopted a small tariff on imports. This was a start but not nearly enough. The government needed this money to maintain its own existence and to be able to pay of the debt. The existence of the government was a necessity, but there was a lot of discussion as to whether the debt should be payed off. The mare magnitude of the debt seemed to compel some measure of avoidance. In 1789, the national debt totaled more than $50 million, $11,700,000 of which was owed to France and Spain and the private bankers of Netherlands, while $40 million was in the form of securities held by citizens of the United States. The interests owed to the bankers were being payed off by loans from the bankers themselves. The government didn't even have enough money to pay the Barbary corsairs for release of captive sailors! When Congress couldn't come up with a solution that was satisfactory, they turned to Alexander Hamilton with the dilemma. He soon proceeded to draw up a full report entitled "Report on Public Credit." In this paper Hamilton proceeded to show that the only way for a new government to establish credit was to deal honestly with its creditors -for in many cases they would

Ku Klux Klan

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is one of America's oldest and most feared groups. Driven by the dream of a world with only one master race, the KKK often uses violence and moves above the law to promote their cause. They didn't start of violent, or to promote white supremacy. They have been in the shadows for over 130 years and continue to thrive in America's society today. The Ku Klux Klan began almost accidentally during the reconstruction period after the civil war in the Southern United States. The southern people had suffered greatly from the effects of the great war. Many of them lost their homes and plantations. Many also lost friends and loved ones to the war. The people needed a release from the sorrow of everyday life. In 1865, six men from a small town in Tennessee accidentally began what has grown to be the largest and most feared "hate group" in the country. The men decided to make a club to help release the stress of the times. The men were all poor and could not afford to make gowns or great costumes for the group, so they decided to use linens. They wore the linens over their backs and put pillowcases on their heads. They also draped the linens over their horses. The Ku Klux Klan was going to ride for the first time. In the beginning, the men wanted to do nothing more than play pranks on people. However, the people were more frightened than they were cheered up. They soon realized what they could do with these fear tactics. The South had turned into a place that was no longer theirs. The slaves were now free (many of these men were slave owners) and carpetbaggers were coming from the North to take advantage of the southern people. They saw the opportunity to set back the South to what it had been. The KKK soon began to ride through political rallies of the carpetbaggers. People often fled the rallies out of fear. Word quickly spread across the South about these masked men. Many people loved the idea and wanted to be involved. The Klan quickly grew. A leader was soon needed to control the large group. Their first choice was Southern General Robert E. Lee. Although he supported the group and its cause, he was very ill and could not handle the task. Their next

Kansas & Nebraska Act Resolved

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The Kansas-Nebraska act was a proposal by Sen. Stephen A. Douglas which said that Kansas and Nebraska territory could be allowed to govern for itself whether or not to be a slave state

Imigration and Discrimination in the 1920s

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Beginning in the early nineteenth century there were massive waves of immigration. These "new" immigants were largely from Italy, Russia, and Ireland. There was a mixed reaction to these incomming foreigners. While they provided industries with a cheap source of labor, Americans were both afraid of, and hostile towards these new groups. They differed from the "typical American" in language, customs, and religion. Many individuals and industries alike played upon America's fears of immigration to further their own goals. Leuchtenburg follows this common theme from the beginning of World War I up untill the election of 1928. If there was one man who singlely used America's fear of immigrants to advance his own political goals it was Attorney General Palmer. The rise of Communism in Russia created a fear of its spread across Europe, and to America. Palmer tied this fear to that of immigration. He denounced labor unions, the Socialist party, and the Communist party in America, as being infultrated with radicals who sought to overturn America's political, economic, and social institutions. Palmer exasperated this fear in Americans and then presented himself as the country's savior, combatting the evils of Communism. He mainly centered his attack on Russian immigrants. During the infamous Palmer raids thousands of aliens were deported and even more were arrested on little or no evidence. Their civil liberties were violated, they were not told the reasons for their arrests, denied counsel, and not given fair trials. What followed was an investigation of Palmer led by Louis Post which overturned many of Palmer's actions. Palmer's cretability was shattered after in a last minute attempt to gain the 1920 presidencial nomination, he made predictions about a May Day radical uprising, the nation perpared itself, but on May 1st 1920 all was peaceful. While the raids had stopped, the hostilities towards immagrants still remained prevelent. Immigrants were used by organized industries as a source of cheap labor. But as labor unions began to form and push for better pay, shorter hours, and improved working conditions industries saw that it was not as easy to exploit these immigrants as it had been before. Like Palmer, they tied the American's hostilities towards immigrants to the newly emerging fear of radicalism. When workers struck, industry leaders turned public opinion agains them by labling the strikes as attemps at radical uprising. As a result, workers were often left with no other choice than

Labor and Unions in America

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The Industrial Revolution was dawning in the United States. At Lowell, Massachusetts, the construction of a big cotton mill began in 1821. It was the first of several that would be built there in the next 10 years. The machinery to spin and weave cotton into cloth would be driven by water power. All that the factory owners needed was a dependable supply of labor to tend the machines. As most jobs in cotton factories required neither great strength nor special skills, the owners thought women could do the work as well as or better than men. In addition, they were more compliant. The New England region was home to many young, single farm girls who might be recruited. But would stern New England farmers allow their daughters to work in factories? The great majority of them would not. They believed that sooner or later factory workers would be exploited and would sink into hopeless poverty. Economic "laws" would force them to work harder and harder for less and less pay. THE LOWELL EXPERIMENT How, then, were the factory owners able to recruit farm girls as laborers? They did it by building decent houses in which the girls could live. These houses were supervised by older women who made sure that the girls lived by strict moral standards. The girls were encouraged to go to church, to read, to write and to attend lectures. They saved part of their earnings to help their families at home or to use when they got married. The young factory workers did not earn high wages; the average pay was about $3.50 a week. But in those times, a half-dozen eggs cost five cents and a whole chicken cost 15 cents. The hours worked in the factories were long. Generally, the girls worked 11 to 13 hours a day, six days a week. But most people in the 1830s worked from dawn until dusk, and farm girls were used to getting up early and working until bedtime at nine o'clock. The factory owners at Lowell believed that machines would bring progress as well as profit. Workers and capitalists would both benefit from the wealth created by mass production. For a while, the factory system at Lowell worked very well. The population of the town grew from 200 in 1820 to 30,000 in 1845. But conditions in Lowell's factories had already started to change. Faced with

Labor Unions

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
Since the foundation of the American Federation of Labor(AFL) in 1886, most unions in the United States have displayed a pragmatic out look, largely compatible with that of business. The general purpose of unions has been to protect and advance the well being of workers, while that of business has been to promote the interests of stockholders. Higher wages and higher profits are compatible over the long run in a growing economy. Conflict does arise, however, from the fact that in the short run higher wages for workers imply lower profits for shareholders. Power, too, is a matter of dispute. In the absence of unions, managers have a monopoly of power over their employees. With unions on the scene, that power must be shared. The standard economic analysis of what gave a particular union the power to raise the pay and benefits of its members was propounded by the eminent English economist Alfred Marshall toward the end of the 19th century. Marshall theorized that the strength of a union depended upon four factors. First, demand for the product should be inelastic, so that there is little, if any, decline in sales in response to price increases. Second, labor costs should be a small portion of the total costs of production, so that a rather large increase in wages would generate only a small increase in the price of the product. Third, the supply of factors that can be used as substitutes for union labor, such as nonunion labor or labor-saving machinery, should be inelastic, so that their price rises substantially as more units are employed. Fourth, the ability of these factors to substitute for union labor should be highly limited; it would be hard to substitute for workers with very high skil! ls or skills that are highly specific to a single employer. Numerous studies have been made to estimate the extent to which unions in the United States have raised the wages of their members above what they would otherwise have been. These studies show substantial differences in the effectiveness of different unions, and that is in the spirit of Marshall's analysis. Substantial variation has also been found in the effectiveness of unions over the course of business cycles. On the average, unions have raised the wages of their members as compared to nonmembers by about 15 percent, somewhat more during periods of depression and somewhat less during periods

The Missouri Compromise

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
A compromise is when two or more parties in disagreement reach an agreement that does not give all sides exactly what they want, but enough of what they want so that they can be happy. Compromise is the best possible solution to a conflict however it does not always work. One needs only to look at situations such as the Bosnia-Herzegovina to see that. During the events prior to the American Civil War, many different compromises were made in an attempt to impede the growing disagreements. However this merely prolonged the inevitable. The differences between North and South were far to great and compromise did not stand a chance at preventing the impending conflict. This was most clearly shown in the ways in which the three main compromises, the Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act, failed. In 1820 Missouri wanted to join the Union as a slave state. As this would ruin the balance between Slave states and Free states in the Senate, Henry Clay proposed the Missouri compromise. This arranged it that while Missouri was admitted as a Slave state, Maine was also admitted as a free state. It also created an imaginary line along the 36o latitude, where slavery was allowed below it but prevented above it. However they limited themselves by only applying the Compromise to lands gained in the Louisiana purchase. This led to conflict after the Mexican war in which America gained new territories in the West. This doomed the Missouri Compromise, which was probably the most promising of the three. Had the Compromise been applied to all American lands then perhaps it could have succeeded. Instead the Missouri Compromise failed and only led to further conflict between north and south in the future. In 1849 once again the Union was facing the same crises it had faced in 1820. California now wanted to be admitted as a free state. Once again Henry Clay came up with a compromise to resolve this conflict. California would indeed be admitted as free while the rest of the Southwest territories would decide the slavery issue by popular sovereignty. It would also abolish slavery altogether in Washington DC and initiate a stronger fugitive slave law to appease the South. This last concession angered people in the North however. Free blacks were concerned as now a Southerner could accuse any black person as being a runaway slave. The

Pre-Civil War New Orleans

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New Orleans is a city in southern Louisiana, located on the Mississippi River. Most of the city is situated on the east bank, between the river and Lake Pontchartrain to the north. Because it was built on a great turn of the river, it is known as the Crescent City. New Orleans, with a population of 496,938 (1990 census), is the largest city in Louisiana and one of the principal cities of the South. It was established on the high ground nearest the mouth of the Mississippi, which is 177 km (110 mi) downstream. Elevations range from 3.65 m (12 ft) above sea level to 2 m (6.5 ft) below; as a result, an ingenious system of water pumps, drainage canals, and levees has been built to protect the city from flooding. New Orleans was founded in 1718 by Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, sieur de Bienville, and named for the regent of France, Philippe II, duc d'Orleans. It remained a French colony until 1763, when it was transferred to the Spanish. In 1800, Spain ceded it back to France; in 1803, New Orleans, along with the entire Louisiana Purchase, was sold by Napoleon I to the United States. It was the site of the Battle of New Orleans (1815) in the War of 1812. During the Civil War the city was besieged by Union ships under Adm. David Farragut; it fell on Apr. 25, 1862. And that's what it say's in the books, a bit more, but nothing else of interest. This is too bad, New Orleans , as a city, has a wide and diverse history that reads as if it were a utopian society built to survive the troubles of the future. New Orleans is a place where Africans, Indians and European settlers shared their cultures and intermingled. Encouraged by the French government, this strategy for producing a durable culture in a difficult place marked New Orleans as different and special from its inception and continues to distinguish the city today. Like the early American settlements along Massachusetts Bay and Chesapeake Bay, New Orleans served as a distinctive cultural gateway to North America, where peoples from Europe and Africa initially intertwined their lives and customs with those of the native inhabitants of the New World. The resulting way of life differed dramatically from the culture than was spawned in the English colonies of North America. New Orleans Creole population (those with

New England and the Chesapeake region before 1700

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Although New England and the Chesapeake region were both settled largely by the people of English origin, by 1700 the regions had evolved into two distinct societies. The reasons for this distinct development were mostly based on the type on people from England who chose to settle in the two areas, and on the manner in which the areas were settled. New England was a refuge for religious separatists leaving England, while people who immigrated to the Chesapeake region had no religious motives. As a result, New England formed a much more religious society then the Chesapeake region. John Winthrop states that their goal was to form "a city upon a hill", which represented a "pure" community, where Christianity would be pursued in the most correct manner. Both the Pilgrims and the Puritans were very religious people. In both cases, the local government was controlled by the same people who controlled the church, and the bible was the basis for all laws and regulations. From the Article of Agreement, Springfield, Massachusetts it is clear that religion was the basis for general laws. It uses the phrase "being by God's providence engaged together to make a plantation", showing that everything was done in God's name. The Wage and Price Regulations in Connecticut is an example of common laws being justified by the bible. Also in this document the word "community " is emphasized, just as Winthrop emphasizes it saying: "we must be knit together in this work as one man". The immigrants to New England formed very family and religiously oriented communities. Looking at the emigrant lists of people bound for New England it is easy to observe that most people came in large families, and large families support the community atmosphere. There were many children among the emigrants, and those children were taught religion from their early childhood, and therefore grew up loyal to the church, and easily controllable by the same. Any deviants from the regime were silenced or persecuted before they could start any movements that would be a threat to the authority of the church. Even people like Ann Hutchinson and Roger Williams, who only slightly deviated from the teaching of the Puritan church were expelled and forced to move to Rode Island. As a result of this tight religious control the society became very conservative in New England, and life evolved to be simple and not

The New Deal

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
During the 1930's, America witnessed a breakdown of the Democratic and free enterprise system as the US fell into the worst depression in history. The economic depression that beset the United States and other countries was unique in its severity and its consequences. At the depth of the depression, in 1933, one American worker in every four was out of a job. The great industrial slump continued throughout the 1930's, shaking the foundations of Western capitalism. The New Deal describes the program of US president Franklin D. Roosevelt from 1933 to 1939 of relief, recovery, and reform. These new policies aimed to solve the economic problems created by the depression of the 1930's. When Roosevelt was nominated, he said, "I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American people." The New Deal included federal action of unprecedented scope to stimulate industrial recovery, assist victims of the Depression, guarantee minimum living standards, and prevent future economic crises. Many economic, political, and social factors lead up to the New Deal. Staggering statistics, like a 25% unemployment rate, and the fact that 20% of NYC school children were under weight and malnourished, made it clear immediate action was necessary. In the first two years, the New Deal was concerned mainly with relief, setting up shelters and soup kitchens to feed the millions of unemployed. However as time progressed, the focus shifted towards recovery. In order to accomplish this monumental task, several agencies were created. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was the keystone of the early new deal program launched by Roosevelt. It was created in June 1933 under the terms of the National Industrial Recovery Act. The NRA permitted businesses to draft "codes of fair competition," with presidential approval, that regulated prices, wages, working conditions, and credit terms. Businesses that complied with the codes were exempted from antitrust laws, and workers were given the right to organize unions and bargain collectively. After that, the government set up long-range goals which included permanent recovery, and a reform of current abuses. Particularly those that produced the boom-or-bust catastrophe. The NRA gave the President power to regulate interstate commerce. This power was originally given to Congress. While the NRA was effective, it was bringing America closer to socialism by giving the President unconstitutional powers. In May 1935 the US Supreme Court, in Schechter Poultry Corporation V. United States, unanimously declared the NRA unconstitutional on

The Regulators of North Carolina: Outraged Opressors

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The history of colonial North Carolina is bombarded with frequent strife and turmoil. The people of North Carolina, because of a lack in supervision from the British monarchy, learned to possess an independent spirit. The colony remained isolated from the rest of the country because of several geographical conditions such as poor harbors, the abscence of navigable rivers, numerous swamps, and bad road conditions. Due to these conditions, communities throughout North Carolina became widely seperated. The colony was initially set up by the Lords Proprietors, an English founding company that helped finance early American exploration. When North Carolina was freed from British proprietorship, the Granville family, descendants from the original Lords Proprietors, con-tinued to hold their land rights. This area, which became known as the "Granville District," was the scene of many disputes over land grants, taxes, British support, and a great deal of lesser issues. Settlers in the back country (Piedmont) felt particularly oppressed by the laws drawn up by an assembly largely composed of eastern landowners. "Local" officials in many counties, particularly in the western segment of the back country were not local men at all, but friends of the royal governor, William Tryon. These so-called "friends" often collected higher fees than authorized by the law while obtaining tax money or divided a single service into many services and charged fees for each. Lawyers who followed the judges around the colony also fell into the same habit. The citizens of Anson, Orange, and Granville counties were the first to make themselves heard. In 1764, this band of citizens, referred to as the "mob," created a number of local disturbances until Governor Arthur Dobbs passed a proclomation forbidding the collection of illegal fees, the practice that the people complained of the most. Their protests were calmed only temporarily. However, the efects of the new law wore off soon enough and sheriffs and other county officers returned to their old dishonest practices. Citizens complained largely in part because money was so scarce; local trading was almost limited to barter. Often, property was seized and resold, and citizens felt that their property was being sold to a friend of an official for much less than its true value (1). People among the Granville District were anxious to revolt and needed only a leader to provide the spark that led to the fire of the War of Regulation. A man named Hermon Husband

Political Morality in Colonial Times

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In Webster's dictionary, morality is defined as "principles of right and wrong in conduct; ethics." The principles of morality have countless times evolved over the ages. In earlier times, death was an easy penalty for many crimes. These crimes today are considered minor and are penalized with a slap on the hand. Is this considered wrong? Who is the correct authority to consult on what is right or wrong? In today's society, two major factors concern how the way members of society act and behave. The first is our national government. Members of our government in positions of authority decide everything in our lives in the form of laws which determine our behavior. One of the most important documents written by our government is the Declaration of Independence. The monarchy was taking away power from the colonists and putting more demands on. In return, the colonists declared their freedom from their tyrant. In this document, it states, "All men are created equal; that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." The great men who wrote this down had a strong sense of morals. They believed that men were given rights by God that no one could take away. This is essential to the issue of morality because it determines the rights-that are agreed upon all- are wrong. This brings us to religion. Religion is a major contributor to how we think and act because it mirrors our beliefs in what we hold as right or wrong. An example of this is the native tribes of africa and South America where a number of tribes practice cannibalism. While this is considered a sin in most christian religions, the tribes have evolved into cannibalism as a way to survive in life and have no objections to their eating habits. The problem arises when the line between government and religion is crossed. While religion does not have to power to punish one physically, but rather soulfully of one has sinned. The government has the power to sentence punishment, yet should have no power concerning God. Many different religions have evolved all over the world and in the process, have people have been prosecuted in their faith. The first settlers in the new world came here to avoid prosecution from the powerful church/government of that time. Specifically, the Church of England

The US-Mexico Border

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
International borders have always been centers of conflict, and the U.S.-Mexican border is no exception. With the European colonizing the New World, it was a matter of time before the powers collided. The Spanish settled what is today Mexico, while the English settled what is to day the United States. When the two colonial powers did meet what is today the United States' Southwest, it was not England and Spain. Rather the two powers were the United States and Mexico. Both Counties had broken off from their mother countries. The conflict that erupted between the two countries where a direct result of different nation policies. The United States had a policy of westward expansion, while Mexico had a policy of self protection. The Americans never had a written policy of expansion. What they had was the idea of "Manifest Destiny." Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States had the right to expand westward to the Pacific ocean. On the other hand, Mexico was a new country wanting to protect itself from outside powers. Evidence of U.S. expansion is seen with the independence of Texas from Mexico. The strongest evidence of U.S. expansion goals is with the Mexican-American War. From the beginning, the war was conceived as an opportunity for land expansion. Mexico feared the United States expansion goals. During the 16th century, the Spanish began to settle the region. The Spanish had all ready conquered and settled Central Mexico. Now they wanted to expand their land holdings north. The first expedition into the region, that is today the United States Southwest, was with Corando. Corando reported a region rich in resources, soon after people started to settle the region. The driving force behind the settlement was silver in the region. The Spanish settled the region through three major corridors; central, western and eastern. The first settlements were mainly through the central corridor. The Spanish went thorough what is now the modern Mexican state of Chihuahua into the U.S. state of New Mexico. Eventually the Spanish established the city of Santa Fe in 1689. The eastern corridor was through modern day Texas and led to the establishment of San Antonio. The eastern expansion was caused by the French expansion into modern day Louisiana. The Spanish crown wanted a buffer between the French in Louisiana and central Mexico. The last corridor of expansion was in the west, through the sea, which

Freedom in the United States

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
No other democratic society in the world permits personal freedoms to the degree of the United States of America. Within the last sixty years, American courts, especially the Supreme Court, have developed a set of legal doctrines that thoroughly protect all forms of the freedom of expression. When it comes to evaluating the degree to which we take advantage of the opportunity to express our opinions, some members of society may be guilty of violating the bounds of the First Amendment by publicly offending others through obscenity or racism. Americans have developed a distinct disposition toward the freedom of expression throughout history. The First Amendment clearly voices a great American respect toward the freedom of religion. It also prevents the government from "abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances." Since the early history of our country, the protection of basic freedoms has been of the utmost importance to Americans. In Langston Hughes' poem, "Freedom," he emphasizes the struggle to enjoy the freedoms that he knows are rightfully his. He reflects the American desire for freedom now when he says, "I do not need my freedom when I'm dead. I cannot live on tomorrow's bread." He recognizes the need for freedom in its entirety without compromise or fear. I think Langston Hughes captures the essence of the American immigrants' quest for freedom in his poem, "Freedom's Plow." He accurately describes American's as arriving with nothing but dreams and building America with the hopes of finding greater freedom or freedom for the first time. He depicts how people of all backgrounds worked together for one cause: freedom. I selected Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451 as a fictitious example of the evils of censorship in a world that is becoming illiterate. In this book, the government convinces the public that book reading is evil because it spreads harmful opinions and agitates people against the government. The vast majority of people accept this censorship of expression without question and are content to see and hear only the government's propaganda. I found this disturbing yet realistic. Bradbury's hidden opposition to this form of censorship was apparent throughout the book and finally prevailed in the end when his main character rebelled against the practice of burning books. Among the many forms of protests are pickets, strikes, public speeches and rallies.

The Twenties and Thirties

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The twenties and the thirties were very unusual time periods in American History. In some ways they are alike, but in most ways they are very different. The twenties were a time of fun and partying. This is probably the reason it is called the Roaring Twenties. All of the thirties were known as The Great Depression. It was probably called that because of the stock market collapse and the millions of people without jobs. In the twenties, industry took a very big step. The automotive industry was the largest industry there was. The assembly line made mass production possible, and the industry boomed. Henry Ford's assembly line, located in Detroit, Michigan, was the largest one in the country and possibly in the world. When Ford first started making cars, the only car he made was a black Model-T. Almost everybody in the United States had a car. Three-out-of-four families owned one or more cars. With the assembly line they made a lot more cars in one day than they did before. Instead of paying for the cars with cash, people could now use credit to purchase items. Since most families didn't have the money, they would buy the car with credit and pay off the debt later. The thirties was a bad time for the automotive industry. By now Ford had made a Model-A and had three new colors: tan, purple and black. All of the companies were making more cars than they could sell. Nobody had enough money to buy a car because of all of the banks going under. Millions of people lost whole fortunes. Since no one had the money for a car, the cars were not being sold. This caused a big problem. The dealers were very optimistic. They continued to make cars hoping that sales would go up. The new credit law was a wonderful idea. It allowed people to purchase items like a television or radio. The invention of the radio united the nation. The news that was heard on the radio was heard by everyone that had a radio. It was the best form of entertainment of its time. Soon thereafter, the television was invented. Once again people took advantage of the credit and purchased televisions. The television still did not take place of the radio. The radio was still used for listening to music. Many people were spending more money than they had. Even in

Spanish settlement of the west

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
International borders have always been centers of conflict, and the U.S.-Mexican border is no exception. With the European colonizing the New World, it was a matter of time before the powers collided. The Spanish settled what is today Mexico, while the English settled what is to day the United States. When the two colonial powers did meet what is today the United States' Southwest, it was not England and Spain. Rather the two powers were the United States and Mexico. Both Counties had broken off from their mother countries. The conflict that erupted between the two countries where a direct result of different nation policies. The United States had a policy of westward expansion, while Mexico had a policy of self protection. The Americans never had a written policy of expansion. What they had was the idea of "Manifest Destiny." Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States had the right to expand westward to the Pacific ocean. On the other hand, Mexico was a new country wanting to protect itself from outside powers. Evidence of U.S. expansion is seen with the independence of Texas from Mexico. The strongest evidence of U.S. expansion goals is with the Mexican-American War. From the beginning, the war was conceived as an opportunity for land expansion. Mexico feared the United States expansion goals. During the 16th century, the Spanish began to settle the region. The Spanish had all ready conquered and settled Central Mexico. Now they wanted to expand their land holdings north. The first expedition into the region, that is today the United States Southwest, was with Corando. Corando reported a region rich in resources, soon after people started to settle the region. The driving force behind the settlement was silver in the region. The Spanish settled the region through three major corridors; central, western and eastern. The first settlements were mainly through the central corridor. The Spanish went thorough what is now the modern Mexican state of Chihuahua into the U.S. state of New Mexico. Eventually the Spanish established the city of Santa Fe in 1689. The eastern corridor was through modern day Texas and led to the establishment of San Antonio. The eastern expansion was caused by the French expansion into modern day Louisiana. The Spanish crown wanted a buffer between the French in Louisiana and central Mexico. The last corridor of expansion was in the west, through the sea, which

The Battle of Little Big Horn

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
When I think back of the stories that I have heard about how the Native American Indians were driven from their land and forced to live on the reservations one particular event comes to my mind. That event is the Battle of the Little Big Horn. It is one of the few times that the Oglala Sioux made history with them being the ones who left the battlefield as winners. When stories are told, or when the media dares to tamper with history, it is usually the American Indians who are looked upon as the bad guys. They are portrayed as savages who spent their time raiding wagon trains and scalping the white settlers just for fun. The media has lead us to believe that the American government was forced to take the land from these savage Indians. We should put the blame where it belongs, on the U.S. Government who lied, cheated, and stole from the Oglala forcing Crazy Horse, the great war chief, and many other leaders to surrender their nation in order to save the lives of their people. In the nineteenth century the most dominant nation in the western plains was the Sioux Nation. This nation was divided into seven tribes: Oglala's, Brule', Minneconjou, Hunkpapa, No Bow, Two Kettle, and the Blackfoot. Of these tribes they had different band. The Hunkpatila was one band of the Oglala's (Guttmacher 12). One of the greatest war chiefs of all times came from this band. His name was Crazy Horse. Crazy Horse was not given this name, on his birth date in the fall of 1841. He was born of his father, Crazy Horse an Oglala holy man, and his mother a sister of a Brule' warrior, Spotted Tail. As the boy grew older his hair was wavy so his people gave him the nickname of Curly (Guttmacher 23). He was to go by Curly until the summer of 1858, after a battle with the Arapaho's. Curly's brave charged against the Arapaho's led his father to give Curly the name Crazy Horse. This was the name of his father and of many fathers before him (Guttmacher 47). In the 1850's, the country where the Sioux Nation lived, was being invaded by the white settlers. This was upsetting for many of the tribes. They did not understand the ways of the whites. When the whites tore into the land with plows and hunted

The Battle of Saratoga

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The Battle of Saratoga is considered to be the major turning point of the American Revolution. This battle proved to the world that the fledgling American army was an effective fighting force capable of defeating the highly trained British forces in a major confrontation. As a result of this successful battle, the European powers took interest in the cause of the Americans and began to support them. In the British Campaign of 1777, Major General Burgoyne planned a concentric advance of three columns to meet in Albany, New York. He led the main column, which moved southward along the Hudson River. A second column under General Barry St. Leger would serve as a diversionary attack, moving eastward from Canada along the Mohawk River. General Howe would be expected to direct the third element of the attack. According to the plan, Howe would direct General Henry Clinton to move northward along the Hudson River and link up with Burgoyne in Albany. The goal of this plan was to isolate and destroy the Continental forces of New England. Initially, the British plan appeared to be working. Burgoyne's army continually pushed back the Americans southward along the Hudson River with only minor casualties. In an attempt to slow the British advances, the American General Philip Schuyler detached 1000 men under the command of Major General Benedict Arnold. This force moved west to thwart St. Leger's eastward advance along the Mohawk River. Arnold returned with his detachment after repelling St. Leger in time to serve in the Battle of Saratoga. First Battle of Saratoga: The Battle of Freeman's Farm The Battle of Freeman's Farm, the First Battle of Saratoga, was an indecisive battle fought 19 September 1777 in which Gates lost ground to the British Disagreements in tactics and personalities led to a heated argument between generals Gates and Arnold, and Gates relieved Arnold of command as a result. The Battle of Bemis Heights was the second battle of Saratoga, taking place October 7th when Burgoyne desperately attacked rebel defenses with his tired, demoralized army. At Bemis Heights, Gate's defensive tactics had insured a tactical victory for the Patriots. However, Arnold saw an opportunity to seize the offensive while Burgoyne was vulnerable and led a counterattack. This bold move so badly wounded the British forces that Burgoyne surrendered days later at Saratoga. Second Battle of Saratoga: The Battle of Bemis Heights After waiting several weeks for developments from

The New York Yankees' 98 Season

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
As anyone on the face of the civilized world knows by now , the New York Yankees have just completed one of the most dominating seasons in the history of professional sports. In the process, as many phemomenoms before them , sports or otherwise, they have captivated not only a city and a nation but much of the planet as well. I have seen Pakistani and Korean tourists visiting New York for the first time buying and proudly wearing Yankee caps and T-shirts. These people , obviously, know little or nothing about the game and are not truly baseball fans but are testimony to the Yanks compelling accomplishments. But the full appreciation of what this team has done in 1998 belongs mainly to the dyed in the wool baseball fan. The guy who's been following baseball as a religion , collecting cards , reading box scores and fantasying about being a big league hero long before his puberty began. It is among this elite group where now, in the afterglow of the success and celebration , that the endless debate over whether this is the greatest team of all time will rage in every locker room, bar room and office for most of this offseason. Many of the self proclaimed baseball gurus from all of the radio and TV talk shows and web sites have decided to take the politically correct approach and say that you cant really compare this team with the great ones of eras past. They say it's an "apples and oranges" comparison. I say this is a load ! You can , and if you're a true fan , should compare them. And you can draw definitive conclusions. I agree that the debate over the "greatest" in most arenas is hopelessly subjective. Who was a greater president , Lincoln or Roosevelt? If you ask who was the sexiest female screen star ever , depending on who you talk to and what their tastes were , you'd be as likely to hear Jean Harlow or Lana Turner as Sharon Stone. The key difference here is that these qualities cannot really be quantitatively measured. The fundamentals of being a great leader or being sexy have not really evolved over the centuries. Our interpretation of these things may have but not the fundamental qualities themselves. So comparing these qualities from different eras would be very very subjective. Baseball is different however. The game has

Development Of The West Beyond The Mississippi

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The years 1840 to 1890 were a period of great growth for the United States. It was during this time period that the United states came to the conclusion that it had a manifest destiny, that is, it was commanded by god to someday occupy the entire North American continent. One of the most ardent followers of this belief was President James K. Polk. He felt that the United States had the right to whatever amount of territory it chose to, and in doing this the United States was actually doing a favor for the land it seized, by introducing it to the highly advanced culture and way of life of Americans. Shortly after his election he annexed Texas. This added a great amount of land to the United States, but more was to follow. The Oregon Territory became a part of the United States is 1846, followed by the Mexican Cession in 1848 and the Gadsden Purchase in 1853. At this point the United States had accomplished its manifest destiny, it reached from east to west, from sea to shining sea. Now that the lands it so desired were finally there, the United States faced a new problem- how to get its people to settle these lands so they would actually be worth having. Realistically, it is great to have a lot of land, but if the land is unpopulated and undeveloped, it really isn't worth much. And the government of the United States knew this. One of the reasons that many did not choose to settle there immediately was that the lands were quite simply in the middle of nowhere. They were surrounded by mountains, inhabited by hostile Indians, and poor for farming. Because of these geographical conditions, the government was forced to intervene to coax its citizens into settling the new lands. Basically the lands were not settled because they were available, they were settled because of various schemes the government concocted to make them seem desirable. The government participated in a great "push" to get its citizens to move to west. At first few people moved to the west, but this changed when gold was discovered in California in 1848. This caused a "gold rush" to the west coast which consisted of many prospectors seeking to find their fortunes in the gold mines of California. Many traveled to the west coast, however few actually found their fortunes.

Watergate

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
"The Watergate Complex is a series of modern buildings with balconies that looks like filed down Shark's Teeth" (Gold, 1). Located on the Potomac River in Washington, D.C. it contains many hotel rooms and offices. What happened in the complex on June 17, 1972 early in the morning became a very historical event for our nation that no one will ever forget. The "Watergate Scandal and constitutional crisis that began on June 17, 1972 with the arrest of five burglars who broke into the Democratic National Committee (DMC) headquarters at the Watergate office building in Washington D.C. It ended with the registration of President Richard M. Nixon on August 9, 1974. (Watergate) At approximately 2:30 in the morning of June 17, 1972 five men were arrested at the Watergate Complex. The police seized a walkie talkie, 40 rolls of unexposed film, two 35 millimeter cameras, lock picks, pensized teargas guns, and bugging devices. (Gold, 75) These five men and two co-plotters were indicated in September 1972 on charges of burglary, conspiracy and wire tapping. Four months later they were convicted and sentenced to prison terms by District Court Judge John J. Sercia was convinced that relevant details had not been unveiled during the trial and offered leniency in exchanged for further information. As it became increasingly evident that the Watergate burglars were tied closely to the Central Intelligence Agency and the Committee to re-elect the president. (Watergate) Four of these men, that were arrested on the morning of June 17, 1972, came from Miami, Florida. They were Bernard L. Barker, Frank A. Sturgis, Virgillio R. Gonzalez, and Eugenio R. Martinez. The other man was from Rockville, Maryland named James W. McCord, Jr. The two co-plotters were G. Gordon Liddy and E. Howard Hunt. (Watergate) The senate established and investigative committee headed by Senate Sam Ervin, Jr., to look into the growing scandal. As they were investigating, they related that the famous break-in was far more involved than what everyone had expected. (Watergate) The White Houses involvement of that morning first became evident when James McCord wrote a letter to Judge Sirca. In this letter McCord explained that he wanted to disclose the details of Watergate. He made it apparent that he would not speak to a Justice department official of an FBI agent. Although his letter did unveil details, it made server chargers. McCord justified that "Political pressure" (Westerfled 36) had generated many defendants to plead

The Watergate Scandal

1999-01-22T13:00:00-05:00
The Watergate Scandal was a series of crimes committed by the President and his staff, who were found to spied on and harassed political opponents, accepted illegal campaign contributions, and covered up their own misdeeds. On June 17, 1972, The Washington Post published a small story. In this story the reporters stated that five men had been arrested breaking into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee. The headquarters was located in a Washington, D.C., building complex called Watergate. These burglars were carrying enough equipment to wiretap telephones and take pictures of papers. The Washington Post had two reporters who researched deep into the story. There names were Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, they discovered that one of the suspects had an address book with the name and phone number of a White House official who could have been involved in the crime. The reporters suspected that the break-in had been ordered by other White House officials. In a press conference on August in 1972, President Nixon said that nobody on the White House Staff was involved in the crime. Most of the public accepted Nixon's word and dropped the questioning. But when the burglars went to trial four months later, the story changed rapidly from a small story to a national scandal. It ended only when Richard Nixon was forced from office. Watergate was connected to Vietnam, it eventually exposed a long series of illegal activities in the Nixon administration. Nixon and his staff were found to have spied on and harassed political opponents, planned contributions to the campaign, and tried to cover-up their illegal acts. These crimes that they did were called the Watergate scandal, named after the building that it happened. For years Nixon was carrying on the crimes and they were not noticed until now. 1969 was the really date in which Watergate was really beginning. It all started when the White House staff made up a list called "enemies list". Nixon had enemies which include 200 liberal politicians, journalists and actors. Most of these people made a public speech against the Vietnam war. Nixon's aides formed a conducts tax audits on these people that he thought were enemies. He also had agents find out secret information that would harm them. Nixon was always worried about govt. Employees revealing secret info. To the news paper or any sort of press. The presidents agents helped him by wiretapping phone lines