Many years before continental Europe was united by the enveloping grasp of the conquering Romans, in a fertile region just north of Rome, Central Italy, a fascinating population existed. Known to modern archaeologists as the Etruscans, their origin, like much of their history, is disputed. Due to a dearth of archaeological evidence and lack of surviving literature, much of what we can conclude regarding their existence is little more than supposition. Luckily, however, subsequent civilizations literature has survived, literature that speaks explicitly of the Etruscan empire, and it is from this that we are able to draw conclusions. Using these sources along with the sparse but fascinating archaeological evidence that does exist, we are able to establish life in Etruria in late prehistory, tracking their influence on the development of Celtic (Gaul) and Roman societies before they were eventually subjugated by the Roman Empire.

In the Bronze Age, 900 � 700 BCE the Italian peninsula was settled by a group of small-scale agriculturalists, known to archaeologists as the Villanovans. Within two hundred years the Etruscan civilization had begun. Whether this resulted from an adoption of new ideas by the Villanovans (Scullard, 1967) or from a migration of peoples from Lydia, Asia Minor, is unclear. They called themselves Rasenna but are known to Archaeologists as the Etruscans. In the 7th century BCE Etruria emerged suddenly (compared with the pace of much of prehistory) (Hamblin, 1975) as a great Mediterranean civilization and achieved the peak of its power in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE (Macnamara, 1991). This period was known as the Orientalizing Period which was followed by the Archaic Period 600-400 BCE, Classical period� 490-300 BCE and finally the Hellenistic Period 300-1 BCE when Etruria was incorporated into Roman Society. Before the domination of Rome the only power to affect a partial ethnico-political and a wider cultural unification of Italy was Etruria (Pallottino, 1955).

Archaeologists who suppose that the Etruscans are of Lydian decent believe that the area first settled was the coastal side of the Tyrrhenian Sea (Pallottino, 1955). The region that may be considered to be the heartland of Etruria, being the area that the twelve Etruscan cities were constructed, lies between the Tyrrhenian Sea and the rivers Tiber and Arno, this is Etruria proper (Pallottino, 1955). All of these cities were built north of where Rome came to be and south of the Alps where Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul resided. In the height of their supremacy the Etruscans dominated or influenced all of northern Italy from south of Venice on the Adriatic to the Tyrrhenian Sea where they held many small islands including Elba (Macnamara, 1991) and much of the Po valley, (Hamblin, 1975) as well as colonies south of Campania and on the island of Corsica. Etruria was an educating force amongst Italian peoples and its influence reached beyond the Alps but it was their close neighbours the Romans who most vividly recalled their ancient debt to them (Macnamara, 1991).

Etruria was made up of self-governing fortified city-states that formed small confederacies. Initially these city-states were governed by a monarchy but later were ruled by oligarchies with a council and elected officials (Scullard, 1967). At no time was Etruria ever a nation under the cohesion of a central government. The city-states were autonomous much like the city-states of Greece (Scullard, 1967) and though they shared language, culture and religion (Bonfante, 1995) at times unity was impossible as they rivaled with each over economics. Their military was powerful and they used it to dominate the surrounding peoples. Populations enslaved by the Etruscan worked on the farms of Etruria whilst the Etruscans focused on industry and commerce. They developed a powerful maritime force and in 600 BCE allied Etruscan and Carthaginian navies held sway over the western Mediterranean (Hamblin, 1975). At times, particularly in the 4th century BCE it was to difficult too organize the military which left them open to the might of more organized rivals (Hamblin, 1975), It was this weakness which precipitated their demise.

The Etruscans were largely agrarian though they did use slaves to do the bulk of their manual labour. The productive soils of their territories allowed for ample produce, and grains, grapes, and olives were cultivated as were cattle, goats, sheep, ducks, geese and chickens (Hamblin, 1975) which were domesticated in all areas of Etruria. As well as fertile soil the region had valuable deposits of copper, tin, lead, iron and silver, these metals were exploited on a massive scale and a trade network commenced with the Greeks and Phoenicians. Skilled sailors, merchants and warriors, the Etruscans exploited many of Italy�s natural resources and engaged in trade with numerous other populations of the Mediterranean many of whom they pulled under their influence. The Etruscans were brilliant engineers and made excellent roads, bridges and irrigation networks. Etruscan potters, metal workers and goldsmiths were renowned for their skill and innovation (Bonfante, 1995) Dentists today still marvel at the gold bridging in the mouths of Etruscan cadavers (Bonfante, 1995).

Many historians refer to the Etruscans as �Lovers of Life� as they lived as exuberant sybarites; enjoying entertainment and surrounded in luxury, they feasted while being waited upon (Hamblin, 1975). Gender inequality was not as pronounced as other civilizations from the period and women enjoyed all of these luxuries along side the men. It is possible that there have been many exaggerations regarding the manner in which Etruscan women behaved given that Roman and Greek cultures had a much different set of norms for women too adhere to (Hamblin, 1975). The ancient historians regarded Etruscans in general, as too free and easy with their sexuality and as having a grandiose lifestyle; this being repugnant to Greco-Romans who were of a more conservative persuasion. The women were languorous (Hamblin, 1975) and are always portrayed as being decked with golden jewels, colorful tunics and they used eye make-up and rouged their lips, the men were immaculately dressed and adorned with other such fineries. The upper class in Etruria lived well and enjoyed life, the lower class served; there was no middle class.

The Etruscans learnt the art of writing from the Greeks and used the Greek alphabet but wrote and spoke in a language very different from any other in the ancient world. We are unable to reconstruct their language today as none of their literature written on fine linen books has survived. Their art was highly skilled and unique. Often portraying the Etruscan way of life. Many works have survived particularly carved stone sarcophagi, wall paintings, bronze work, jewelry and ceramics (Hamblin, 1975). During the Renaissance Period, Etruscan art was prized and great efforts were made by antiquarians to recover it for their personal collections. The art of the Orientalising Period was colorful and depicted scenes of festivities and enjoyment. However when Rome began to subjugate Etruria in the 4th century BCE the mood of the art changed, depicting scenes of war, fratricide and desperation. Many scenes from Homer�s Iliad were portrayed at this time transmitting an almost palpable aura of fear (Hamblin, 1975).

Despite their passion for life and ostentatious behavior, contradictorily the Etruscans were deeply religious and had a firm belief in all things supernatural. They believed that it was humanity�s highest duty to seek the will of the gods (Macnamara, 1991) and to conform to their wills. The Etruscans believed they had the power to, through divination and interpreting auguries, determine the god�s resolve. These skills were highly regarded and anyone who possessed the expertise moved up the ladders of social stratification in Etruscan society. Funeral rites and detailed religious ceremonies were regarded as paramount and a great deal of effort was put into these (Bonfante, 1995). Etruscan tombs illustrated their houses and it was believed that the afterlife was much like this world and that all things were to be enjoyed as they were on Earth.

Although in many texts in states that the Etruscans had an influence on the Celtic societies to the north, this area is under researched and no conclusions can be made as to what these influences actually were. It does appear however that the relationship between the two populations was a rather hostile one and on several occasions Gauls attacked the cities of Etruria. On one occasion defeat was imminent in the city of Veii, so the Etruscans called upon the city of Rome to come to her aid. Rome responded and thus being the first time the Romans and Gauls met and battled it was the commencement of much violence and bloodshed for centuries to endure.

Etruscans did much for the city of Rome, they erected the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol Hill, built the Cloaca Maxima to drain the swampy area where the Forum was to be built and constructed walls around the town. From the end of the 7th century BCE until 510 BCE Etruria may have provided a dynasty that ruled Rome itself (Bonfante, 1995) though this is of course disputed. Four of the seven Kings of Rome bore Etruscan names; Numa Pompilius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius and Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (Scullard, 1967). The first two may have been Etruscan or their names may just have been etruscanized in the course of history however the two latter were unmistakably Etruscan in their origins. After the decline of the Roman Monarchy and the onset of the republic, the political position of Praetorship is thought to be based on a chair in the Etruscan office. The fact that the Praetor had an entourage of twelve lictors, essentially bodyguards, each carrying a bundle of twelve rods called fasces (Bonfante, 1995) was considered very much an Etruscan practice. In addition the number twelve also being an important number in Etruscan culture, the twelve major cities of Etruria being a key example.

It is said that the Etruscans introduced the knowledge of writing to the Romans as well as the arts, skills of craftsmanship and engineering. An astonishing amount of symbols regarded as Roman such as the toga, numerals, monumental art and architecture and the processes of divination all are of Etruscan origin. Despite all of these influences eventually the student, Rome, became the master of its teacher Etruria. Rome increased in size and power, beginning in the 4th century BCE and concluding in 89 BCE Etruria was brought under Roman dominion. Roman citizenship was conferred on all Etruscans, and all of their cities succumbed to Roman overlordship, (Bonfante, 1995) resulting in the loss of their language.

For six and a half centuries, from 750 BCE to the 1st Century BCE � beginning when Rome was still no more than a cluster of huts � this area was the heartland of the people who built Italy�s first great civilization. �Etruria filled the whole length of Italy with the noise of her name,� recalled the Roman historian Livy, writing around the time of Christ (Hamblin, 1975). The Etruscans appear to have influenced the Celts but how exactly remains unclear. They did however have a colossal part in shaping Rome into the all-conquering empire that it was to become and more particularly one of the greatest influences of western culture.

References:

Bonfante, Larissa, Etruscans: Italy�s Lovers of Life, 1995 � Pgs 11, 14, 16, 99, 121

Hamblin, Dora Jane, The Etruscans, 1975 � Pgs 9, 10, 57, 58, 74, 108, 109

Macnamara, Ellen, The Etruscans, 1991 � Pgs 5, 62, 70, 71

Pallottino, M. The Etruscans, 1955 � Pgs 84, 85

Scullard, H.H. The Etruscan Cities and Rome, 1967 � Pgs 19, 221, 224, 225

Melissa Ousey